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Religious & Journalistic Ethics in Photojournalism Chapter 1 -
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
The truly unique powers of visual media as well as those falsely attributed to them combine to confer upon their users the opportunity to achieve both noble and base goals: to discover and communicate truths, but also to deceive and manipulate; to unify dispersed and diverse groups, but also to cultivate false impressions and stereotypes of “the others”; to cross great distances and overcome barriers that block our view of important events, but also to intrude public scrutiny into individual and group privacy.[1]
1.1 A Changing Context
Islamophobia is dread or hatred of Islam and of Muslims. It has existed in several western countries and cultures for several centuries. However, It has, over the past few decades, become more specific and dangerous.
Muslims in India account for more than 120 million people. It is the largest minority group in the country and the second-largest Muslim population in the world. A large section of Muslim population has suffered media generated communal conflicts and mistrust, in a secular India. The biased media, socio-political and religious tensions, and living in a heterogeneous Indian society are some of the reasons for their discontentment and suspicion of successive governments.
News photographs engage our attention for their dramatic and emotional appeal. They draw us instantly into a news-story. All major newspapers and illustrated magazines use photographs, for they attract readers.
These days, it is normal to encounter a famous event in the newspaper with a single captivating image or a sequence of images along with the rhetoric of words that makes reading interesting. There is no denying that pictures have more immediate impact than do words.[2]
Ken Kobre in his article, “Is Photojournalism Dead?,” argues on the need of pictures in journalism:
Only 25% of subscribers read a story on the front page of the newspaper if no picture accompanies it. Add a photograph - any photograph - and the readership of that story zooms. Increase the size of the picture and the readership of the story shoots up even higher. Journalism needs pictures.[3]
But sometimes irresponsible use of image, headline, caption, or the narrative text communicate a message, contrary to the actual story. A biased headline or a caption robs a good photograph of its true message.
Observing sheer pervasiveness of photographic images, Martin Lister observes:
The meanings of any particular photographic image are not free-standing and autonomous, as if fenced off from all others. Each one or each cultural form in which they circulate, is a small element in a history of image production and a contemporary ‘image world.’ [4]
Journalists know that photographs have emotional appeal. Photographs are, therefore, seen as, a sure-fire ingredient of news-worthiness[5]. Journalists sometimes use photographs in an irresponsible manner, not thoroughly considering other implications.
In a multi-religious, multi-linguistic, multi-societal, and multi-cultural Indian context, the medium of photojournalism, among other things, if not handled responsibly and sensitively, can foster religious and ethnic conflicts, promote fundamentalism and help forces of division.
Sensational images, especially those of carnage or bloodshed can easily fan communal or ethnic violence in the sensitive parts of the country.
The medium of photojournalism, therefore, poses ethical responsibilities on journalists to contribute responsibly and sensitively in building national unity and communal harmony, instead of inciting anger, mistrust, hatred and communal violence.
The incident of the Oklahoma city bombing on 19 April, 1995, in the USA, covered by Scotland Today, is an example of the misuse of a photograph. The photograph along with the headline, “In the Name of Islam,” appeared on the front-cover of Scotland Today, 20 April, 1995.[6] Both the photograph and the headline have independent meanings, but together they communicate an irresponsible message.
It was too early to know, who was responsible, but the headline held the Islamic faith and Muslims responsible for the bloodshed.
Such journalistic editorialising is capable of creating negative repercussions on the minority Muslim community in other parts of the country, where the event took place.
Since, events, such as this one, have far reaching implications, the photograph and headline of the story affects Muslim communities unfairly in other parts of the world.
The headline can give quite a different meaning to the photograph depending who sees it, how and in which context. For non-Muslim readers, it simply endorses that Islam is implacably threatening to non-Islamic world.[7] For the majority of Muslim community, it invites racist indifference and hostility by non-Muslim communities.
In the Oklahoma City example, the photograph and the headline create both empathy for victims and hatred for the Islamic community, reputedly responsible for the incident.
Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., while looking at images from the perspective of both producers and receivers, argue:
We are beginning to understand the technologically produced image as a construction - as the interpretative act of someone, who has a culture, an ideology, and often a conscious point of view - all of which cause the image to convey a certain kind of knowledge in a particular way. Image makers show us their view of the world, whether they mean to or not.[8]
Sometimes journalistic obligation to “truth telling,” becomes counter-productive to the message, in a sensitive multi-religious and multi-cultural context.
There is an old Indian saying, “ A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth.” Somewhere hidden in the notion is the fact that ‘truth’ for the sake of ‘truth’ could be detrimental, if not valued sensitively on its news-worthiness and subsequent effect.
Shabbir Akhtar, while reviewing Salman Rushdie’s, controversial Satanic Verses, in his book, “Be Careful with Muhammad! The Salman Rushdie Affair,” says:
[T]here is plenty of animus in works published in the hey day of western Christian imperialism. Washington Irving’s Mahomet and His Successors has on its title page, an imaginary painting of the Prophet with a sword in one hand, and a Koran in the other…His 19th century contemporary Sir William Muir is more explicit…the sword of Mahomet, and the Coran are the most fatal enemies of civilisation, liberty and truth which the world has yet known.[9]
Muslim community has been at the receiving end of derogatory references, both from the Western tabloid and mainstream press. Islamophobia prevents Muslim community from making positive contribution, to national debates on common concerns and issues in pluralistic cultures, from their perspective.[10] It promotes ill-feeling towards the entire community, both locally and globally.
1.2 Church’s Mandate
Can a multi-religious, multi-societal and multi-cultural India afford journalism that incites anxiety and fear among its several religious communities? Is it not the mandate of the Christian Church to work towards reconciliation, national unity and harmony? Are we not called to serve with love and truth to build a just and peaceful society?
We, Indians, as a nation have faced much religious violence in India, over the past several years. How can the Indian Christian Church witness together with other faiths to bring peace in our land?
St. Paul’s letter to the Ephesians challenges us: “live a life that measures up to the standard God set when he called you. Be always humble, gentle, and patient. Show your love by being tolerant with one another. Do your best to preserve the unity which the Spirit gives by means of the peace that binds you together.” Ephesians 4:1-3 [Today’s English Version]
The following quote from the MacBride Report [1980], on ‘Rights and Responsibilities of Journalists,’ perceives journalism both as a profession and a mission:
Although millions of people work in communication in one way or another, special attention is rightly devoted to journalists. They have not only an important social function, but their potential capacity to influence and even shape ideas and opinions…makes journalism both a profession and a mission.
This is particularly important since public opinion is dependent more than ever on those who supply objective, truthful and unbiased news and information; the news gatherer and news disseminator are essential to the workings of any democratic system.[11]
Kaarle Nordenstreng, commenting on the paradoxical nature of accuracy and truth-telling in journalism, argues:
[W]e have to question even the most fundamental dogma of the profession - truth seeking - because the way it has been conceived and practised in journalism serves as a deceptive filtering device preventing as much as helping the truth being discovered.[12]
The socio-religious and pluralistic Indian context demands us to “…uproot and to pull down, to destroy and to overthrow…” ideologies and doctrines which destroy the sense of truth and peace in a community and ‘to build and to plant’ communities which “will hammer their swords into ploughs and their spears into pruning-knives.” Jeremiah 1:10 ; Micah 4:3 [Today’s English Version]
1.3. Purpose of Dissertation
India is a nation of sub-continental proportions with linguistic, ethnic, socio-religious, and economic diversities. It has a cultural heritage of about five thousand years, and has been a home for many religions, Hinduism being the oldest. In a country marked with diversity, it is easy to instigate unrest, and suspicion among its people on the basis of religion.
Against such a backdrop, the medium of photojournalism raises several questions concerning religious and journalistic ethical principles, and their practice in a pluralistic society.
How can ethical principles and practice, thrive within multiculturalism? What are the parameters and limitations of “truth-telling,” “non-violence,” “fair representation,” “equality and justice,” “respect for dignity”? How do receivers decode images generated by the medium of photojournalism?
In recent times, there has been an increase of religious violence and prejudice against the Muslims as well as Christians, at the hands of Hindu fundamentalists in India. This adds urgency to the questions for the Church.
The embattled state of Christianity in India is a present-day fact, echoed by Prechard Basaiawmoit, a Christian journalist from north-east India. He says:
National dailies in reporting uprisings anywhere in India do not fail to give the name and religion of one of the perpetrators should there be a Christian involved. Never before has the Church and the Christian faith been under attack.[13]
The Indian Vice-President, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was one of the candidates to become India’s next President, came under heavy fire by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad [VHP], and the National Harijan Action Council [NHAC], in June 1997.
Accusing K R Narayanan for his past involvement with the Church, VHP Vice-President, Ashok Singhal says:
…This is a larger conspiracy of the Church to make Rashtrapathi Bhavan [President’s House], a bastion of Christianity…[14]
The National Harijan Action Council [NHAC], Chairman,M K Kunhjol, says:
We should not allow the Rashtrapathi Bhavan [President’s House], become a playground for the anti-Hindu activities of the Christian clergy through Narayanan.[15]
It is paradoxical that different religious communities, which stood together in solidarity, during the Indian freedom movement, marked by Gandhi’s non-violent crusade, until the Partition of India in 1947, could get into conflict situation, simply on the basis of religion.
In this dissertation, I will attempt to explore certain religious and journalistic ethics of photojournalism as they relate to religious and socio-political questions and their implication in the Indian context.
Indian case-studies are used as examples to help establish ‘an ethical frame of reference,’ to suggest a responsible use of photographs and editorialising in promoting national unity and harmony among different religious communities in India. In addition, a study of possible and intended dangers of photojournalism, hopefully, can be integrated in the Church’s media education programme for the benefit of media practitioners
The Church has a mandate to act and witness as an organ of reconciliation among all people. Awareness, practice and promotion of religious and journalistic ethics in photojournalism could strengthened the socio-religious fabric in India to fight against common social concerns and forces of division.
It is hoped that such considerations, among other things, will help foster sensitivity to different faiths and minority communities, and will promote communal harmony and peace, in otherwise a fragile country caught-up in regional and ethnic conflicts.
2. Journalistic Ethics : A Christian Analysis
The power of photojournalism is evident in its role as mediator of information and images of those parts of society most distant from the lives of the majority. Photographically produced images are often seen as mirror-reflection of any reality.
Such belief has encouraged people to co-operate with the photographers and journalists in the hope that “their story” would be truly captured and shared.
Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., argue that image is contextual and that its connotative meaning is interpreted by different expectations:
[E]ventually, the meaning and significance attached to a visual image are a consequence of the label attached to it, the expectations associated with the context in which the image appears, and the assumptions made by audiences about which sort of images are produced by which sort of image-makers and shown in which sort of settings.[16]
International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism,[17] prepared as an international common ground and as a source of inspiration for national and regional codes of ethics, in its section on ‘The Journalist’s Dedication to Objective Reality,’ states:
The foremost task of the journalist is to serve the people’s right to true and authentic information through an honest dedication to objective reality whereby facts are reported conscientiously in their proper context, pointing out their essential connections and without causing distortions...so that the public is provided with adequate material to facilitate the formation of an accurate and comprehensive picture of the world...
When we examine the photograph and the headline, ‘In the Name of Islam,’ in the introduction of this dissertation, we see that the code of accuracy and objectivity is not followed! Bernard Levin, a columnist, in the London Times, writes under the title, “There will be wars”:
We do not know who primed and put the Oklahoma bomb in its place; we do know that they were, in the fullest meaning of the word, fanatics. Unlike most of us, they do not in the least mind being killed; indeed they are delighted, because they believe they are going to a far, far better place…Do you realise that in perhaps half a century not more, and perhaps a good deal less there will be wars, in which fanatical Muslims will be winning? As for Oklahoma, it will be called Khartoum-on-the-Mississippi, and woe betide anyone who calls it anything else.[18]