Chapter 1
· Organisational Effectivness – a broad koncept represented by several perspectives, includng the organisation’s fit with the external environment, internal subsystems configuration for high-performance, emphasis on organizational learning and ability to satisfy the needs of key stakeholders.
· Open system perspective – organisations take their sustenance from the environment and, in turn, affect that environment trought their output. /see the graph on page 6/
· Organizational learning perspective – organisational effectiveness depends on the organisation’s capacity to aquire, share, use, and store valuable knowladge. Good organisations shoould also unlearn routines and patterns of behaviour that are no longer appropriate.
· High Performance Work Practices (HPWP) perspective – effective organisations incorporate several workplace practices that leverage the potential of human capital (employees are an important source of competitive advantage: it is valuable, rare, difficult to imitate, nonsubstitutable. The value can be increased through the presence of specific organizational prctices).
· Intlectual capital – company’s stock of knowladge, including human capital, structural capital and relationship capital.
· Types of individual behaviour – task performance (refers to goal-directed behaviours under the individual’s control that support organisational objectives), organizational citizenship behaviors (various forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that support the organization’s social and psychological context), counterproductive work behaviours (voluntary behaviors that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organisation), joining and staying with the organisation (related with job satisfaction – person’r evaluation of his or her job and work context), maintaning work attendance (importan is the reason for absence)
· Contemporary challenges for organisations – globalisation (economic, social and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world), increasing workforce diversity (surface-level div. – like gender, race, age and deep-level diversity – pschological characteristics like values, beliefs, attitudes), diversity has advantages (like improved decision making) and disadvantages (it takes longer to perform effectively), emerging employment relationships (questions of work/life balance and virtual work)
Chapter 2
· Motivation – the forces within a person that affect his/her direction, intensity, and persistance of voluntary behaviour.
· Ability – the natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task.
· Role perception – inludes: understand the specific tasks assigned to person, understand the priority of his/her various tasks and performance expectations (also quality vs. Quantity), understanding the preffered behaviours to accomplish the assigned tasks.
· Situational factors – conditions beyond the employee’s immediate control that constrain of racilitate behaviour and performance, such as time, people, budget, physical work facilities.
· MARS model – describe how the individual behaviour is influenced, it was used in the case about policemen and their reports. It may be useful to managers to analise the reasons for a behaviour and find solution how to change it.
· Five-factor model (FFM) – the five abstract dimensions representing most personality traits: conscientiousness (careful, dependable, self-disciplined), agreeableness (courteous, good-natured, epathic, caring), neuroticism (anxious, hostile, depressed), openness to experience (sensitive, flexible, creative, corious), extroversion (outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive). FFM reflects associations between personality and a variety of workplace behaviours and outcomes
· Social indentity theory – explains self-concept in terms of the person’s unique characteristics (personal idenity) and membership in various social groups (social identity) eg. Inhabitant of USA, university graduate.
· Schwartz’s model (values circumplex) – Operness to change (self-direction and stimulation), conservation (conformity, tradition, security), self-transcendence (benevolence, universalism), self-enhancement (hedonism, achievement).
· Values across cultures – individualism vs collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, achievement-nurturing orientation (competitive vs cooperative view of relations with other people)
· Three ethical principles – utilitarism (seeking the greatest good for the greatest number of people), individual rights (everyone has entitlements that let them act in a certain way), distributive justice (people who are similar to each other should receive similar benefits and burdens)
CHAPTER 3
Selective attention – the process of attending to some information received by our sense and ignoring others. It is influenced by the caracteristics of the person and object: size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty. Person’s emotional staus (anger, happiness) and his expectations, assumptions.
Categorial thinking – nonconscious process of organizing people and objects into preconvinced categories that are stored in our long-term memory. Grouping principals:
- filling in missing peace of situation (closure)
- grouping based on object similarity and proximity
- seeing trends that are actually random events.
Mental model – visual or relational imagies in our mind representing the external world.
SOCIAL IDENTITY AND STEREOTYPING:
What influences social perception:
1. Categorization – when you remove person’s individuality and see him as a representative of a certain group
2. Homogenization – assumption that people within a group are vry similar to each other
3. Differentiation – we asign more favorable caracteristics to people in our group
Stereotyping- reasons:
1. nonconcious energy saving process to simplify our understanding of the world
2. we hav a innate need to understand and anticipate how others will behave
3. we are particulary motivated to rely on negative stereotypes when others threaten our self-concept
Most experts agree that categorical thinking (incl. stereotyping) is an automatic and nonconscious process. Intensive training can minimalize it to some extent but for the most part the process is hardwired in our brain cells.
ATRIBUTION THEORY:
Atribution process- the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused largely by internal (motivation, ability) or external factors (environment).
Atribution rules:
INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
FREQUENTLY FREQUENTLY SELDOM
SELDOM SELDOM FREQUENTLY
EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
Atribution errors:
1. Fundamental atribution error- the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behaviour
2. Self-serving bias - the tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
It occurs when our expectation about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. It is stronger when several people hold the same expectations of the individual. Its effect is also stronger among people with a history of law achivement. This effect has a weak effect on high achivers.Leaders need to develop and maintain a positive, realistic expectations towardds employees.
OTHER PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
1. Halo effect – or general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colors our perception of other characteristics of that person.
2. Primacy effect – we quickly for an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them.
3. Recency effect – the most recent information dominates our perception of others.
4. False-consensus effect – we overestimate the extent to which other have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own.
IMPROVING PERCEPTION
1. Awareness of Perceptual Biases
2. Improving Self-Awareness - > Johari Window – the main idea is to increase the size of the open area so that you and you colleagues are aware of your perceptual limitations. Disclosure – informing others of your beliefs, feeling, experiece. Feedback – info from others about you
3. Meaningful Intraction – participants must have close and frequent interaction working
toward a shared goal where they need to rely on each other. They should have equal status and should be engaged in a miningful task.
LEARNING IN ORGANIZATION
Learning – permament change in behaviour that occurs as a result of person’s interaction with the environtment.
Explicit knowledge – f.e. reading from a book
Tactic knowledge – acquired through observation and direct experience
A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification
A – Antecedents - what happends before the behaviour
B - Behaviour – what the person says or does
C – Consequences – what happends after the behaviour
Contigences of reinforcement (they increase, reduce or maintain the probability that the behaviour will be repeated):
1. Positive reiforcement – increases or maintain the probability that th behaviour will be repeted
2. Punishment –decreases probability that th behaviour will be repeted
3. Negative reiforcement – removing or avoiding the consequences
4. Extinction – the target behaviour decreases because no consequences follow it
The schedule and timing of reinforcement is important. When it occurs often employees leern fast but at the same time the extention occurs fast when this reiforcement is removed. The best schaduele is variable one.
Social learning theory:
It states that much learning occurs by observing others and then modeling the behaviours that lead to favorable outcomes This form of learning occurs in 3 ways:
1. Behaviour modeling – peolpe leran by observing the behaviour of the role model and pracicing those behaviours
2. Learning behaviour consequences- the learn about the consequences through logic and observation, not direct experience
3. Self-reinforcement – f.e. having a snack after finishing the task. (you have a control over the reinforcement)
Learning orientation – when organization values learning opportunities
Knowledge acquisition – extracting info and ideas from external world f.e. by hiring individuals, doing a research or acquiring a company
Knowledge sharing
Knowledge use
CHAPTER 4
Emotions – physiological, behavioural .. episodes experienced toward a person or object
Moods – less intense emotional states, not directed toward somone or something
Attitudes – cluster of beliefs, assesed feelings and behavioural intentions toward a person or an object or event. Attitudes are judgements while emotions are experiences
· Executive tend to make quick decisions based on their gut feelingd but the best decisions tend to occur when they spend time logically evaluating the situation. We should pay attention to both emotional and cognitive side of mental model.
Cognitive dissnance – inconsistency between our beliefs, feeling and behaviour. It violates our self concept
Emotional labour – the effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions
Emotional dissonance – the conflict between required and true emotions. It can be minimized by deep acting and surface acting.
Emotional Inteligence – ability to monitor your own and others feelings and emotions. Its dementions. They form a hierarchy:
Self –awareness – understending of your own emotions
Self-management – controling of your own emotions
Social awareness - emphaty
Relationship management – influencing others
EVLN MODEL
This model shows 4 ways that employees respond to job disatisfaction:
Exit – quiing the job
Voice – attempt to change f.e. recommending ways for management to improve
Loyalty – patienty waiting, “suffer in silence”
Neglect – reduing work effort, paying less attention to quality, increasing absenteeism ans lateness
· Job performance leads to job satisfaction (rather than vice versa). Job satisfaction influences employees motivation but doesn’t affect performance.
Organizationl Commitment – employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in a particular organization. (employees have higher job motivation, organizational citizenship and job performance, they are less likely to quit their job or be absent but they tend to be less creative)
Continuance Commitment – calculative attachement, employee is motivated to stay only because leaving would be too costly
How to build organizational loyalty:
- Justice and suppoer
- Trust
- Organizational comprehention – open and rapid communication with leaders and co-workers
- Employee involvement
STRESS:
Distress – negative experience, deviation from healthy functioning (consequences – job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, lower organizational commintment, helth problems)
Eustress – it activates and motivate people to achive goals
General Adaptation Syndrome – a model of the stress experience, consisting of 3 stages: alarm reaction, resistence and exhaustion. People have limited resistance capacity. Most of them can remove the stress source (stressor) or them selves from it before the 3rd stage accurs.
Important stressors:
Harassement – repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions or gestures that affects employees dignity or psychological or phisical inegrity and that results in harmful work environtment for the employee.
Work overload – cauesed by: globalization and its demand for work efficiency, consumerism, ideal worker norms (working long hours)
Low task control – when the job is done mostly by machine f.e. and a person can’t do much abou it
How to deal with stress:
1. remove the stressor – employee should have a job that match his skills and preferences, noise should be reduced, corrective actions aganist harrasement implemented
2. Withdraw from the stressor – breaks, days off...
3. Change stress perception – manager should strenghten employees’ self confidence and self- esteem so job challanges are not percived as threatening
4. Control stress consequences – healthy lifestyle, subbsidization of the cost of fitness centers ect.
5. Receive social support – emotional and informal support from family, co-workers, supervisors ...
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Chap. 5: “Employee Motivation: Foundations and Practices”
Motivation
The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior
Drives (primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives)
Neural states that energize individuals to correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium
à Hardwired in the brain
à Activate emotions
à Nowadays nonphysical needs are included as well
Needs
Goal-directed forces that people experience
à Drive-generated emotions (consciously or unconsciously) directed towards particular goals
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
A motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower becomes gratified
Physiological: The need for food, air, water, shelter, and so on
Safety: The need for a secure and stable environment and the absence of pain, threat, or illness.
Belongingness / love: The need for love, affection, and interaction with other people.
Esteem: The need for self-esteem through personal achievement as well as social esteem through recognition and respect from others.
Self-actualization: The need for self-fulfillment, realization of one’s potential.
à Self-actualization can’t be satisfied
à Deficiency needs: first four needs. Become activated when unfulfilled
à Growth need: self actualization for it continues to develop even when fulfilled
è Has been dismissed by most motivation experts! No empirical background.
ERG Theory
A needs hierarchy theory consisting of three fundamental needs – existence, relatedness, and growth
à Also explains how people regress down the hierarchy when they don’t satisfy a need.
à Not robust too.
Learned Needs Theory
Examines three learned needs (need for achievement, need for affiliation, need for power).
à Needs can be learned (resp. strengthened or weakened)
Four-Drive Theory
A motivation theory based on the innate drives to acquire, bond, learn, and defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality