Demystifying Academic Discourse

Demystifying Academic Discourse

Academic discourse is the type of writing that is required of you in college and beyond. Academic writing in particular calls upon writers not simply to express their own ideas, but to do so as a response to what others have said. You should do what rhetorician’s define as “entering into a conversation about ideas.” This means you must engage in a conversation with the text by first identifying what “they say,” then set up your own argument with your own ideas (“I say”).

“How do I do that?”

Let’s demystify this illusive language by illustrating “the moves that matter” in academic writing. This is called modeling. Basically I’m giving you an invitation to the academic culture, and the academic language that in previous years has been arcane.

They Say…I Say

The following are templates for practice to develop logical arguments and/or persuasive rhetoric. Eventually you can not only embed these into your own writing, but tweak them to feel a sense of ownership that reflects your personal persona; your own voice. Just like playing a piano, or cooking, or shooting a basketball, or even driving, you started with a series of instructions or moves that were already done by several people. Yet then, it eventually becomes mastered.

Ways of Responding

She argues______, and her argument is a valid one because…..
Her argument that…………..is supported by new research revealing that………

He claims that……, and yet the issue is not that simple. On the one hand______. On the other hand, it is clear that ______. ( this is a great way to take a qualifying position and it allows you to work out a complicated argument)

This is an extended version of this type of template:

In recent discussions of______, a controversial issue has been whether______. On one hand, some argue that______. From this perspective,______. On the other hand, however, others argue that______. In the words of one of this view’s main proponents, “ ( use a quote here).” According to this view,______. In sum, then, the issue is whether ______or ______.

( Notice that by using this template, you can see that the student( that’s you) will enter into a conversation with the text)

Just remember, these exercise are not only helping you become a better writer, but also they are helping you think critically, debate intelligently, and from informed arguments based on the text.

Templates for Introducing what “They Say”

(good for synthesis essay)

A number of socialist have recently suggested that X’s work has several fundamental problems.
It has become common today to dismiss X’s contribution to the field of sociology.
In their ( or his /her) recent work, Y and Z have offered harsh critiques of Dr. X for______.

Templates for Introducing “Standard Views”

( Careful with these-don’t make sweeping generalizations )

Americans today tend to believe that______
Conventional wisdom has it that______
Common sense seems to dictate ______
The standard way of thinking about topic X has it ______
It is often said that______
The assumption that______

Templates for Introducing Something Implied or Assumed

(Like Warrants)

Although X doesn’t say so directly, he often gives the impression that______.
One implication of X’s treatment of _____ is______.
Although X does not say so directly, she apparently assumes that______
While they rarely admit as much, ______often takes for granted that______.

Hopefully this can help you think and see things critically-to look beyond what others say explicitly and to consider their unstated assumptions, as well as the implications of what they say or assume.

Template for On-going Debate

When it comes to the topic of ______, most people will readily agree that______. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of ______. Whereas some are convinced that______, others maintain that______.

Watch how the political writer Thomas Frank uses a variation of this template.

That we are a nation divided is an almost universal lament of this bitter election year. However, the exact property that divides us-elemental though it is said to be-remains a matter of some controversy.

Remember, when writing a synthesis, keep what “they say” as you move through the text of your essay. While unfolding your own response to the argument, you must keep other’s ideas in view of the reader.

In brief then, as I suggested earlier, defenders of _____ can’t have it both ways. Their assertion that_____ is contradicted by their claim that______.

Templates for introducing summaries or Quotes

( good for any essay)

The author demonstrates that______.
In fact, they celebrate _____
______, he admits.

Verbs for making a claim:

argue, asset, believe, claim, emphasize, insist, observe, remind us, report, suggest, asserts

Find 5 of your own:

Verbs for expressing agreement:

Acknowledge, admire, agree, celebrate the point by, corroborate, do not deny, endorse, extol, praise, reaffirm, support verify

Find 5 :

Verbs for questioning or disagreeing:

Complain, complicate, contend, contradict, deny, deplore the tendency to, disavow, question, refute, reject, renounce, repudiate

Use 5 in a sentence:

Verbs for Making Recommendations:

Advocate, call for, demand, encourage, exhort, implore, plead, recommend urge, and warn

“Don’t Use Hit and Run Quotation”

Find relevant quotation and frame them. Do not leave them “dangling.”

Template for Framing Quotes

X (use adj.) states…
As the prominent philosopher X puts it, “…..”
According to X, “…”
X himself writes, “…”
In her book, ______, X maintains that “…”
Writing in the journal Commentary, X complains that “……”
In X’s view, “…”
X complicates matters further when she writes, “…”

When adding such introductory phrases, be sure to use language that accurately reflects the spirit of the quoted passage. If the author is alarmed in the quote, say so.

For the argument analysis, and you must explain the quote, try these templates:

Basically, X is saying…
In other words, X believes…
In making this comment, X argues that
X is insisting that…
X’s point is that…
The essence of X’s argument is that…

Disagreeing with the Author

Although this sounds like a simple thing to do, when you disagree with an author, you must still temper your argument with precision and finesse. Don’t merely state your disagreement; you must give reasons why you disagree.

Here are some Templates for Disagreeing with Reasons

X ( the author) is mistaken because she overlooks______
X’s claim that ______rests upon the questionable assumption that______.
X’s view is outdated (or erroneous) because, as recent research illustrates, ______.
X contradicts herself/can’t have it both ways. On one hand she argues______. But on the other hand, she also says ______.
By focusing on ______, X overlooks the deeper problem of______
X claims______, but we don’t need him to tell us that. Anyone familiar with ______has long known that ______.

You can also disagree with someone by presenting their argument than twisting it to your position. We will call this the “twist it” move.

Example: X argues for stricter gun control legislation, saying that the crime rate is on the rise and that we need to restrict the circulation of guns. It is true that the crime rate is on the rise, but that is precisely why I oppose stricter gun control legislation. We need to own guns to protect ourselves against criminals.

See how you can agree with the research, but twist it to fit your logical argument.

Agreement-but with a Difference

Sometimes when agreeing, you tend to sound like you are just regurgitating what the author just said. Kind of like preaching to the choir-AMEN! So let’s work on agreeing, yet adding to the argument. You, the writer, must contribute to the conversation. You might introduce a similar situation that falls within the same argument that the writer didn’t bring up, or even expand on a particular point that the author overlooked. Even though you are agreeing, the important thing is to open up some difference between your position and the one you’re agreeing with rather than simply parroting what it says.

Templates for Agreeing

Only if you have a relevant, interesting, worthy experience use this one

I agree that ______because my experience______confirms it.

Here are some more:

X is surely right (or apt) about ______because, as she may not be aware, recent studies have shown that______.
X’s theory of ______is extremely useful because it sheds insight on the dilemma of ______.
It is true that ______, a point that needs emphasizing, since so many people ______.
Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be interested to know that it basically boils down to ______.

Qualifying: Agreeing and Disagreeing Simultaneously

This is hard and complicatedbut possible. Your argument must be clear and nuanced while maintaining a reader-friendly framework. Sometimes you can tip your argument toward one direction even, yet still qualify. Here is a template for this reasoning:

Although X’s argument remains valid (or logical) up to a point, his overall conclusion presents some ideological problems. ( then state )

Conversely, if you want to stress your agreement more than your disagreement, you would use a template like this one.

Although X’s argument is quite flawed, I fully endorse his final conclusion that ______

I know some of these use the personal I, but since it is done with nuance and logical reasoning, it is allowed in argument essays only. Do not overly use the personal I. It is only sued for the effect of conviction and assurance. It is strictly used as a rhetorical feature here.

Though I concede that ______, I still insist that ______
X is right that ______, but she seems on more dubious ground when she claims that______.
While X is probably wrong when she claims that______, she is right that______.
Whereas X provides ample evidence that _____, Y and Z’s research on _____and ______is quite convincing. Instead of______, the evidence reveals ______.

If good academic writing involves putting yourself into a dialogue with others, it is extremely important that readers be able to tell at every point when you are expressing your view and when you are stating someone else’s.

For instance, if the assertion is about class distinction, and you want to “sink your own oars” into the conversation try this template after you first identify the author’s assertion, then, write this:

Yet class distinctions are real and arguably the most significant factor in determining both our very being in the world and the nature of the society we live in.
Yet______are real... ( you get the idea)

Another trick to identifying who is speaking without using the typical “X argues” statement, is embedding a reference to X’s argument in your own sentence.

A major problem exists with the liberal doctrine about so-called “cultural differences.”
X overlooks an integral issue about “ ______.”
These conclusions, which X discusses in ____, add weight to the argument that ______.

When writers fail to use a variation f these types of devices, their prose sound like all they are doing is quoting what others say. If you embed quotes with perspectives such as the previous example, you won’t confuse your readers about your own viewpoints.

Anticipating the Opposition ( or objections)

If you tell readers what others might say against you, you will enhance your credibility, not undermine it. Therefore, you are engaging others in a debate and/or dialogue. The more you give voice to your critics, the more you can disarm those critics, especially if you do so in a convincing way.

Templates for Entertaining Objections

Of course many will probably disagree with this assertion_____
Yet _____ may challenge this view of______. After all, many believe that ______. Indeed, my own argument ignores______, however,______.
Here many feminist would probably object to ______.
But social Darwinists would certainly take issue with the argument ______.
Biologist , may want to dispute the idea ______.
Nevertheless, both followers of Malcolm X will probably suggest otherwise and argue______.
To be sure, some people dislike______.Yet______.

To create voice ( but be very, very careful) through questions introducing objections informally

Yet is it always true that______? Is it always the case, as I have been suggesting, that ______?
However does the evidence conclusively prove ______?

Make sure when you summarize objections, you need to answer those objections persuasively.. Don’t let the readers find the objections more convincing than your own argument.

Templates for Making Concessions While Still Standing Your Ground

Although ,granted, X’s argument is______, I still maintain that______.
Proponents of X are apt to argue that______. But they exaggerate when they claim______.
While it is true that______, it does not necessarily follow ______.
On one hand X’s argument is right in regards to ______. Yet ,on the other hand, I still insist that______.

Sometimes, for a convincing argument, a writer needs to identify why their claim matters.

Here are some more templates for this form of argument:

Although X may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over______.
Ultimately, what is at stake here is______.
These findings have important consequences for the broader domain of______
This assertion of X is in fact addressing the larger matter of ______.
This discovery will have significant applications in______as well as in ______.

So now, you just have to learn to put all of these ideas and arguments together without sounding formulaic. One way is by using transitions. You want to use original transitions that the average student doesn’t use. Along with my handout on academic discourse language, the following is another list of transitions that scholars often use:

Addition: in fact, so too, indeed, besides,

Example: After all, as an illustration, for instance, specifically, to take a case in point

Elaboration: Actually, by extension, inshort, that is, to put it bluntly, to put it succinctly, ultimately

Comparison: along the same lines, in the same way, akin to this idea, likewise, similarly, at the same time

Contrast:Conversely, while yet, even though, Cause and effect: Accordingly, as a result, hence, in consequence

Conclusion: as a result, simply put, In short,

Remember: Ideally transitions should be unobtrusive in a piece of writing. The reader shouldn’t even know they are there. That’s why sometimes I like to use adverbs or just unique transitions as well. Here are some of my favorites:

To evaluate an argument:

Essentially, the argument is _____
Ultimately the author should sway his discourse toward ______, yet he tends to mildly evoke ______by ______.
Incidentally, he fails to achieve ______.
But above all,______

You get the idea. Have fun and remember to incorporate voice with all your writing.

* Templates and advice transposed from They Say, I Say, written by Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein. Other templates and advice written and/or edited in reference to AP language class by Nicole L Tucker. Copyright 2008.