Section I: The Role of Ethical Standards
Questions:1) Why do professions develop ethical standards?
2) What are the main objectives that codes of ethics fulfill?
3) What role do ethical codes have in making ethical decisions?
Ford (2006) delineates numerous reasons for the development of professional standards. The author expresses that the development of a professional code is an important development in a profession. The author indicates that as a profession emerges it establishes itself as a contributor to society. The profession is said to develop an identity and distinguishes itself from other professions. Ford (2006) states that establishing an ethical code “is a way of communicating to students and practitioners of the profession the basic principles, ideas, and interests of the profession. As the profession matures problems and issues emerge that require the establishment of behavioral guidelines to sensitize the members of the profession to issues involved in the practice of that profession. Hence, the objective of the ethical standards is to provide standards of professional conduct that provide guidelines for practicing within that profession. The ethical codes provide guidance for practitioners to increase competence in dealing with ethical issues. An increase in the level of competence of practitioners would hopefully lead to better decision making.
Notes: ______
The Importance of Competence
Hanson and Kerkhoff (2011) emphasize that competence has transitioned from an aspirational General Principle in the 1992 APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct to becoming a core component and an independent section of the ethical standards. The authors highlight that competence had become imbedded in the principles of Beneficence, Nonmalefecence and Justice. These three principles include boundaries of competence as a central component. It is emphasized that they support this transition because the welfare of others is fundamental to the field. Hence, competence as a standard holds practitioners accountable for their actions. Hanson and Kerkhoff (2011) highlight that psychologists should have competencies in assessment, intervention, consultation, research and evaluation, administration, advocacy, teaching and supervision. Supervision is important in ensuring that scholars and practitioners are doing no harm as we go forth and learn the skills of the trade.
Notes: ______
Pettifor, McCarron, Schoepp, Stark, and Stewart (2011) view supervision as a core competency for practitioners. The authors highlight that supervision can occur in multiple contexts and that the ethical issues within these contexts must be viewed from multiple perspectives, e.g., the supervisor, supervisee, the university, the organization, the community, and society. Hence, it can be seen that competence is crucial in the ability of the members of a profession to make good decisions because there is a ripple effect. The competence of the individual and the choices made affect not only the individual receiving the services but also sends a message to the community and society about the level of professionalism of the members of our profession.
Notes: ______
Section II: Comparing Ethical Standards
Psychiatry and Psychology
Ford (2006) indicates that medical and mental health ethics began with the Hippocratic Oath. This oath was written around 400 BC. It is said to represent the concerns and values of all helping professions. Ford (2006) highlights that this document contains values and concerns that are fundamental to all helping professions, such as:
Beneficence______
Nonmaleficence______
Autonomy______
Justice______
Fidelity______
The ethical practice of medicine is guided by the Principles of Medical Ethics which is published by the American Medical Association (AMA). Ford (2006) emphasize that psychiatry’s ethical code has many of the same issues as the ethical codes for psychology and counseling. However, unique to psychiatry is that it is the only mental health profession that must deal with the ethical issues of prescribing medications.
Notes: ______
HIGHLIGHTS
1. Ford (2006) indicates that the preamble and general principles are considered aspirational goals of psychologists based on the American Psychological Association (APA).
2. The ethical standards are said to be enforceable rules that govern the behaviors of practitioners. For example, the ethical principle of Beneficence and Nonmaleficence (do good for others, and do no harm) include the standards of 1) duty to warn and 2) competence. Hence, generally psychologists strive to do good for others and to do no harm to others as they practice their profession.
3. However, in their practice they must include the rules/standard and obligation to warn others when there is a threat to harm a specific person.
4. The second standard of competence highlights the importance of psychologists providing services only in those areas that they have developed an expertise. An example may include a psychologist providing substance abuse services when they have had no training, knowledge or expertise in this arena.
5. Hanson and Kerkhoff (2011) indicate that back in 1992 competence was a general principle and not a standard. Now it is a standard that psychologists must demonstrate expertise in a given area of practice.
6. However, Hanson and Kerkhoff (2011) do indicate some exceptions. The authors highlight that in Standard 2.01, which discusses the Boundaries of Competence, a psychologist could step outside his/her area of competence to prevent lack of access to services. However, the latter could only occur if the psychologist takes reasonable steps to become competent in those areas.
7. Another contingency is that the psychologist must already have closely related training or experience (Hanson & Kerkhoff, 2011).
8. A psychologist who can demonstrate competence in a specialty area is also related to the issue of trustworthiness.
9. Ford (2006) indicates that the principle of Fidelity and Responsibility refers to the trustworthiness of psychologists, and that it follows directly from the concepts of beneficence and nonmaleficence.
10. Additional principles in psychology include Integrity, Justice and, Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity.
Notes: ______
Counseling
Ford (2006) emphasizes that The American Counseling Associations Code of Ethics is structured differently from the ethical principles of psychology. Counseling is said to be grounded in behavioral science and is an applied psychology.
Notes: ______
HIGHLIGHTS
1. Ford (2006) indicates that counseling applies theory and research as it relates to mental health, human development, personality functioning “in the provision of services to individuals and groups” (pg. 37).
2. Similar to psychology, counseling has aspirational principles followed by standards or rules that must be followed.
3. it appears that the principles of psychology are interwoven in the counseling ethical codes, but, additional areas are included that are specific to the counseling profession. For example, the issues of beneficence, nonmaleficence and competence are interwoven into the counseling ethical codes.
4. Unique to counseling, as it relates to competence, are the areas of multiculturalism and caring for terminally ill clients, and they are highlighted under the principle of: The Counseling Relationship.
Notes: ______
Social Work
The preamble for the code of ethics for social workers emphasizes that the primary mission of social workers is to enhance human well-being and to meet the basic human needs of all people. Hence, altruism is the fundamental motivation of the social work profession (Ford, 2006).
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The core value of service is reflected in the first principle.
2. The second principle focuses on efforts to combat discrimination and social injustice.
3. The third principle addresses respect for all persons. The value of acknowledging that all people have worth is emphasized (Ford, 2006).
4. The fourth principle concerns itself with the role of social relationships in the lives of people. The value of the importance of human relationships is espoused in this principle.
5. According to Ford (2006) the final section is comprised of the ethical standards of the profession. This section includes aspirational goals and enforceable guidelines. The issues of competence are also addressed.
6. Ford (2006) indicates that social workers “as educators and supervisors, they provide competent, professional services and do not exploit students or supervisees” (pg. 9). They also advocate for adequate resources for their clients in order to meet their needs.
7. Social work is unique because it focuses on the social aspects of the helping profession.
Notes: ______
Licensed and Marriage and Family Therapists
SEE MFT CODE OF ETHICS HANDOUT
Substance Abuse Counseling
SEE NAADAC CODE OF ETHICS HANDOUT
Section III: Multicultural Competency
Question: What are the main characteristics of the culturally skilled practitioner?
HIGHLIGHTS I
1. Becoming a culturally skilled counselor requires an individual making a conscious effort to acquire the skills necessary to develop the competencies that are required.
2. Johannes and Erwin (2004) indicate that there are fundamental guidelines that have been proposed by various authors in developing cultural competence. The authors indicate that one needs to identify one’s own basic assumptions as they relate to culture, ethnicity, race, gender, class, religion, and sexual orientation.
3. It is important to be aware of our values in these areas and how our assumptions may impact our practice as a counselor (Johanne & Erwin, 2004; Sue & Sue, 1990).
4. Both Sue and Sue (1990) and Johannes and Erwin (2004) highlight that developing a willingness to learn from our clients about their culture is important in order to provide effective services. Sue and Sue (1990) emphasize that “the culturally skilled counselor acknowledges and is aware of his/her own racist attitudes, beliefs, and feelings” (pg. 168).
5. Both Sue and Sue (1990) and Johanne and Erwin (2004) emphasize the importance of the culturally skilled counselor possessing knowledge and information about the particular group that the counselor is working with
HIGHLIGHTS II – MULTICULTURAL GUIDELINES (SEE ARTICLE)
1. The American Psychological Association (APA), in 2003 developed guidelines on multicultural education, training, practice and organizational change for psychologists (SEE ARTICLE).
2. The APA indicates that the goals of the guidelines are to provide a rationale for diversity education, training, research, practice and organizational change.
3. Another goal is to provide basic information on empirical research and to enhance ongoing education.
Notes: ______
Section IV: Your Challenges
Ford (2006) expresses that personal values are not just those that are related to professional activities, but also it is about personal likes and dislikes. The author’s indicate that this includes personal attitudes and beliefs about numerous life issues. These values and beliefs are said to influence perceptions about people and situations.
1) What are the challenges you are expected to face when working with diverse client populations.
______
2) How do you think your own culture, life experiences, attitudes, values, and biases influence your professional work?
______
CHALLENGES - HIGHLIGHTS
1. Werth, Hastings, and Riding-Malon (2010) indicate that rural areas have fewer referral sources than urban areas. The author’s indicate that the latter could foster a sense of isolation for practitioners in rural areas.
2. The authors also indicate that a practitioner should refrain from entering into multiple relationships.
3. However, this point is crucial to underscore because multiple relationships can be considered an inevitable part of rural practice…yet, we also wish to emphasize that merely because multiple relationships can be expected does not mean the rural practioner license to engage in any type of relationship and excuse it as a natural result.
PLEASE LIST ADDITIONAL CHALLENGES:
______
Section V: Multicultural Ethical Issues, Principles, and Codes
What will be discussed in this section:
1) How the ethics codes address diversity perspectives and multicultural concerns.
2) What are the strengths and limitations of these codes concerning diversity and multiculturalism?
Ford (2006) emphasize that culture is not synonymous with ethnicity, but rather, it incorporates issues of social class, subculture, gender, religion, and many more examples. The ethics codes address diversity perspectives and multicultural issues by providing guidelines for providers. Ford (2006) indicates that in 1993 the American Psychological Association (APA) published “Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services to Ethnic, Linguistic, and Culturally Diverse Populations” (pg. 31). The author highlights that at that time this was an aspirational goal, and psychologists were encouraged and not required to obtain specialized training in providing services to various ethnic groups.
In 2003 the APA published Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychotherapists. The APA state that “these guidelines address U.S. ethnic and racial minority groups as well as individuals, children, and families from biracial, multiethnic, and multiracial backgrounds” (pg. 378).
One concern that the guidelines highlight is that group categorization has influenced intergroup behavior, and in-group favoritism. The APA guidelines state “psychologists are urged to become more aware of and sensitive to their own attitudes toward others as these attitudes may be more biased and culturally limiting then they think…it is sobering to note that even those who consciously hold egalitarian beliefs have shown unconscious endorsement of negative attitudes toward and stereotypes about groups” (pg. 383). The APA express that the goals of the guidelines are to provide a rationale for diversity education, training, research, practice and organizational change. Another goal is to provide basic information on empirical research and to enhance ongoing education.
Notes: ______
HIGHTLIGHTS- STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
1. One limitation is that the guidelines set forth by the APA were set to expire in 2009 and I have not found where they have been updated.
2. Another limitation is that the psychological codes address multiculturalism in the Principle of justice, but, do not address skills sets that should be utilized.
3. The 2003 APA Guidelines try to remedy this by providing a more descriptive discussion of cultural issues in the “practice” section of the guidelines.
4. The APA highlights a concern in this section that “the traditional Eurocentric therapeutic and interventions models in which most therapists have been trained are based on and designed to meet the needs of a small proportion of the population” (pg. 390). However, they do not provide a discussion on interventions that may work with various ethnic groups.
5. A strength of the codes of ethics is that they clearly acknowledge that more research and education is needed in the area of multiculturalism.