Hindusthan Free IAS Academy
In association with Manidhanaeyam Free IAS Academy
(Run by Hindusthan Charitable Trust)
Hindusthan Gardens, Behind Nava India
Coimbatore- 641 0028.
Contact no. 9626231319
ANCIENT INDIAN SECULAR LITERATURE
Kavya Literature
• Though the two great Ithihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata) are undoubtedly the precursors of Sanskrit Kavya literature, its origin can be traced to the Vedic hymns. Patanjali mentions three akhyayikiis: Vasavadatta, Sumanottara and Bhaimarathi. Unfortunately, we have no definite knowledge of the growth and development of Kavya in the period between the 2nd century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D.
• The name of Kalidasa, the most celebrated Indian poet, stands high in the realm of Sanskrit lyrics. His Meghaduta is the finest work in this genre. Bhartruhari, assigned to the 7th century A.D., has to his credit the three Satakas, viz., the Sringarasataka, the Nitisataka and the Vairagy- asataka.
• The advocates of the theory of renaissance of Sanskrit literature sought to prove that Brahmanic culture passed through its dark age at the time when India was continuously facing foreign invasions; and that the earliest revival of this culture is to be found in the so-called golden age of the Guptas. Recent research has, however, rejected both the theory of renaissance and the concept of golden age.
Court Epics
• Asvaghosha, the most outstanding Buddhist writer in Sanskrit, adorned the court of Kanishka. He wrote, apart from the Buddhacharita, another epic named Saundarananda.
• After Asvaghosha the most celebrated Indian poet is Kalidasa. His Kumarasambhava is an epic in seventeen cantos of which only the first eight are believed to be genuine. Its theme is the marriage of Lord Siva and Uma and the birth of Karttikeya. The Raghuvamsha, another epic of Kalidasa, has nineteen cantos based on the history of kings of the Ikshvakus.
• Bharavi, who is generally associated with the Pallavas of Kanchi and whose name is mentioned along with Kalidasa in the famous Aihole inscription (A.D. 634) of Pulakesin II, wrote the epic Kiratarjuniya in eighteen cantos. Based on the Mahabharata, the poem describes how Arjuna obtained the Pasupata weapon from Siva.
• Bhatti who belonged to the late 6th and early 7th century A.D. and was patronized by Sridharasena of Valabhi, composed the Bhattikavya or Ravanavadha, comprising of twenty-two cantos, with the sole object of illustrating the rules and principles of grammar and rhetoric.
• Other prominent Sanskrit epics include Kumaradasa's Janakiharana (6th century A.D.) and Magha's Sisupalavadha (8th century A.D.).
Drama
• The roots of the Sanskrit drama can undeniably be traced to Bharata*s Natya Sastra, the earliest known book on Sanskrit dramaturgy.
• But the most outstanding early Sanskrit dramatist is Bhasa, whose thirteen dramas have now been discovered.
■ Though scholars widely differ on the authenticity and authorship of the plays ascribed to him, Bhasa is mentioned by Kalidasa, Bana, Rajasekhara and other later writers with great respect.
■ His plays are taken from the two great epics and various popular tales. The plays based on the Ramayava are Pratima and Abhisheka, while Madhyamavyayoga, Dutaghatotkacha, and Karnabhara are based on the Mahabharata.
But it is Svapnavasavadatta which is undoubtedly the best of Bhasa's dramas. • Though the date of the famous ten-act play Mrichchhakatika, ascribed to Sudraka, is still disputed, it was definitely written after Bhasa's Charudatta (3rd century A.D.). The name of king Sudraka is, however, found in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Somadeva's Kathasaritsiigara and Skanda Purava.
• Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvasiya and Abhijnanasakuntala have earned him recognition as the greatest of Indian dramatists. Particularly, his Abhijnanasakuntala, the most mature product of his genius, has gained worldwide recognition.
• Three dramas are attributed to Harsha, whose Ratnavali is a masterpiece. Priyadarsika and Nagananda are his other creations.
• Bhavabhuti, considered next only to Kalidasa, is mentioned by Kalhana as a poet in the court of king Yasovarman of Kanyakubja (A.D. 736). The dramas Mahaviracharita, Malatimadhava and Uttararamacharita are ascribed to Bhavabhuti.
Prose Literature
• The earliest specimens of Indian prose-writing are found in the Krishna Yajur Veda. The prose portions of the Mahabharata, the Vayu and Bhagavata Puranas, and the medical compilations of Charaka are worth mentioning. The writings of Sabarasvamin and Vatsyayana are good specimens of Sanskrit prose.
• The extant prose literature may be divided into two classes—romance and fable: The prose-romances are of two main types, viz. Akhyayika and Katha.
• Dasakumoracarita of Dandin (7th century A.D.) was a work of the Akhyayika type. Subandhu (early 7th century A.D.) wrote Vasavadatta. ■ Banabhatta is undoubtedly the greatest of Indian prose-writers; he wrote Harshacharita (Harsha's biography) and Kadambari (love-story of Chandrapida and Kadambari in their several births).
• The fables or short stories belong to three categories: popular tales, beast-fables and fairy-tales.
■ The best collection of popular tales was the Brihatkatha, a Prakrit work of great importance, now lost to us.
■ Fortunately, however, the story of the lost work has si^vived in some of the early medieval works like Kshemendra's Brihatkathamanjari (A.D. 1037) and Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara (A.D. 1063-68).
■ The Panchatantra attributed to Vishnusharman is an important work on beast-fable.
Ancient Indian Religious Literature
Vedic Literature
Composition: The word veda is derived from the root vid, which means to know. It is applied to a branch of literature which is declared to be sacred knowledge or divine revelation, that is, sruti. It consists of two parts: Samhitas and Brahmanas. The latter itself is divided into three parts: Brahmanas pure and simple, the Aranyakas, and finally the Upanishads.
Samhitas: They are collections of hymns sung in the praise of various gods. They are the most essential part of the Vedic literature. They are four in number: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda Samhitas.
• The Rig Veda (veda of praise) consists of 1017 hymns (suktas) and supplemented by 11 others called valakhilyas. It is divided into 10 books or mandalas. The Rig Veda is the oldest as well as the most important of all the Samhitas. In mandala HI, composed by Visvamitra, we find the famous Gayatri mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri.
• The Sama Veda (the name is derived from saman, a song or melody) consists of stanzas (except 75) taken from the Rig Veda. They were set to tune for the purpose of chanting by the udgatri priests at the soma sacrifice. It is called the book of chants, and the origins of Indian music are traced to it.
• The Yajur Veda (veda of yajus or formulae) consists of various mantras (hymns) for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. It is primarily a guide for the use of the adhvaryu priest who performed the ritual. The two royal ceremonies of rajasuya and vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. It is divided into two parts: Krishna and Sukla.
• The Atharva Veda (veda of the atharvans or the knowledge of magic formulas) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Believed to be the work of non-Aryans, its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. It is divided into two parts: Paippalada and Saunaka.
Brahmanas: They are treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. Their subject matter is ritual and language is prose. In short, they deal with the science of sacrifice. The important Brahmanas are: (1) Aitareya, (2) Kausitaki, (3) Tandyamaha, (4) Jaiminiya, (5) Taittiriya, (6) Satapatha and (7) Gopatha Brahmanas.
• Tandyamaha Brahmana, is one of the
oldest and contains many legends, and includes the vratyastoma, a ceremony through which people of non-Aryan stock could be admitted into the Aryan fold.
• But the most important as well as the most voluminous of all the Brahmanas is the Sat a pat ha Brahmana. It provides us information about not only sacrifices and ceremonies but also theology, philosophy, manners and customs of the later Vedic period.
Aranyakas: These forest books deal with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. The Aranyakas contain transitional material between the mythology and ritual of the Samhitas and Brahmanas, on the one hand, and the philosophical speculations of the Upanishads, on the other.
Upanishads: They are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the Universal Soul, the Absolute, the individual self, the origin of the world, the mysteries of nature, and so on. They mark the culmination of Indian thought in the Vedic period. They criticize the rituals and lay stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. Of the several Upanishads, only 12 are very important. They are: (i)Aitareya, (2) Kausitaki, (3) Chandogya, (4) Kena, (5) Taittiriya, (6) Katha, (7) Svetasvatara, (8) Brihadaranyaka, (9) Isa, (10) Mundaka, (11) Prasna and (12) Mandukya.
Vedangas and Sutra Literature: There are six Vedangas: (1) Siksha (Phonetics), (2) Kalpa (Rituals), (3) Vyakarna (Grammar), (4) Nirukta (Etymology), (5) Chandas (Metrics) and (6) Jyotisha (Astronomy).
• In contrast to the Vedic literature proper, which is considered sruti or divine revelation, the Vedangas are called smriti or literature handed down by tradition because they are of human origin. The Vedangas are written in the form of sutrai i.e. condensed prose style intended for memorization. The sutra literature help: us in the study of the Vedic literature.
• Of all the sutra texts, only Kalpa Sutras have come down to us, and these are again divided into three classes: (l)Srauta Sutras, (2) Grihya Sutras and (3) Dharrna Sutras.
The first one deals with the rituals of the great sacrifices of Agni, Soma and animal;
- The second with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be performed by the house-holder; and
■ The third with the laws, manners and customs of people in general.
■ It is the third one with which the historians are mainly concerned, for it constitutes the foundation of the Dharmasastras such as the Laws of Manu.
• Attached to the Srauta Sutras are the Sulva Sutras, the oldest books on Indian geometry containing instructions for the measurement and construction of the complex Vedic fire altars and the laying out of the sacrificial area.
Brahmanical Literature
Ithihasas:
• According to tradition the Ramayana was composed about 500 bc. Its original authorship is attributed to Valmiki. It received its present form two or three centuries later, but there are a number of different versions which exist today. Out of its seven books (kandas), the first and last are the latest. The former states that Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu, an indication of its later composition, but many of the stories are very old and include some which probably originated in the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala.
• Known originally as Jaya Samhita, the Mahabharata includes the Harivamsa (the Genealogy of Hari or Vishnu) and the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord). Traditionally it is attributed to Krishna Dvaipayana, also known as Vyasa.
■ It was composed over many centuries and was almost finalized by the 3rd or 2nd century bc, although the Bhagavad Gita and other interpolations are of somewhat later period. The Gita ffef resents the views of Krishna Devakiputra who declared that righteous conduct is more efficacious than gifts made to a priestly sacrificer.
- The great battle described in the Mahabharata may have a historical basis in the memory of a battle in north India in the 9th century bc.
■ It consists of eighteen books or sections (parvans). The Harivamsa forms an appendix to the Mahabharata and consists of three parts which give an account of creation, a genealogical list of the Yadavas, myths, the adventures and love affairs of Krishna and the cowherd girls.
Puranas: Traditionally the Puranas expound five subjects: the creation of the world; its destruction and recreation; genealogies of gods and patriarchs; reigns of the Manus of various world periods (manvantaras), and the history of the Solar and Lunar royal dynasties (Surya and Chandra Vamshas). None of the eighteen main Puranas date earlier than the Gupta period, although much of the legendary material is older.
• The names of the eighteen Puranas are Vishnu, Agni, Bhavishya, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Siva, Skanda, Brahma, Brahmananda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya and Vamana. In some lists the Vayu is substituted for the Agni Purana, and in others for the Siva Purana.
• The Vayu Purana is perhaps the oldest; some others may be as late as the 15th or 16th century, but all appear to have undergone much revision.
• Puranas greatly aided the dissemination of Upanishadic teaching to the illiterate, and to the majority of women to whom education was deliberately denied.
Dharmasastras or Smritis:
• Their contents include the sources of dhanna; the duties of the four varnas and asramas; various samskaras of man; the avocations of the four varnas in life; the duties and responsibilities of the king, rules for taxation, etc; impurities of birth, death, and other causes; different kinds of sraddhas, rules about food, duties of women and their property, niyoga (levirate) and its conditions; and sins and their expiations, and penances and their conditions.
• The Smritis deal with these topics in an analytical and systematized form under three main heads—achara (rites), vyavahara (dealings), and prayaschitta (expiation). The main Smritis are given as under.
• The Manu Smriti is the most ancient and authoritative among them. It has twelve chapters dealing with achara, vyavahara, and prayaschitta. It is looked upon as having served as a model to all the later Smritis. It has many masterly commentaries like those of Medhatithi, Govindaraja, and Kulluka Bhatta.
• The next in importance is the Yajnavalkya Smriti, which has three kandas (sections) on achara, vyavahara, and prayaschitta. It agrees with the Manu Smriti on many points, but disagrees on issues like niyoga, inheritance, and gambling. It has got a few valuable commentaries like Balakrida, Apararka, and Mitaksara, of which Mitaksara is the most critical and authoritative.
• The Parasara Smriti is noted for its advanced views and it is considered most suited for the kaliyuga. It deals with achara and praynqchitta only. It mentions the apaddharma of the four castes: agriculture, trade, and commerce for the Brahmins, etc. Its commentary by Madhvacharya is very popular and authoritative and explains vyavahara under raja-dharma.
• The Narada Smriti occurs in two recensions and deals with vyavahara only. It closely follows Manu, but introduces a few innovations in the eighteen titles of law and permits niyoga, remarriage of women, and gambling under certain conditions.
• The Brihaspati Smriti has seven sections dealing with vyavahara, achara, and prayaschitta. It closely follows the Manu Smriti and is known as a parisista (supplement) to the latter.
• The Katyayana Smriti follows closely the works of Manu, Brihaspati and Narada. It specially deals with stridhana (a woman's personal property).
• Among others mention may be made of the Smritis of Angirasa, Daksa, Pitamaha, Prajapati, Marici, Yama, Visvamitra, Vyasa, Sangrahakara, and Samvarta.
Buddhist Literature
Pali Canonical Texts: The canon of Buddhist sacred literature may be divided into two great classes: the Hinayana canon written chiefly in Pali, and hence spoken of as the Pali canon; and the Mahayana canon written chiefly in Sanskrit and widely translated into Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan and other Mongolian languages. The Pali canonical books consist of three parts collectively known as the Tipitakas which were reduced to writing between 350 bc and 90 bc.
• The first one, Vinaya Pitaka (350 bc), contains:
■ The Patimokkha or rules of monastic discipline for bhikshus, along with a commentary on the rules.
■ The Mahavagga, which lays down rules for admission, regulations on dress, personal hygiene, etc.
■ The Chullavagga, which contains duties for monks and nuns, methods of settling disputes, expiation and penances.
• The Sutta Pitaka (300 bc) consists of five nikaya or collections of aphorisms, precepts and discourses for the laity. They are:
■ Digha-nikaya, a collection of long sermons and an account of Buddha's last speeches and his death and the funeral ceremonies;
■ the Majjhima-nikaya, a collection dealing with the relation of Buddha to the Jainas and others, various forms of asceticism, and a long enumeration of offences and the punishments;
■ the Samyutta-nikaya discusses Buddhist doctrine and many sayings of Buddha;
■ the Anguttara-nikaya, a collection of sermons arranged in ascending numerical order, enumerating doctrines and principles; and lastly
■ the Khuddaka-nikaya comprises fifteen books of miscellanea which are essential for an understanding of Buddhism. The important ones are:
• The Jatakas comprises stories of Buddha's former lives, which are among the most ancient fables in world literature.
The Theragatha and the Therigatha, the Songs of the Male and Lady Elders, containing;ii4igious lyrical poetry of a high order.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with the same subjects as the Sutta Pitaka but in a more scholastic manner. It consists of supplementary philosophical dissertations and expositions of the finer points of mind-training, psychology and dogma.
- Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a good exposition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics.
■ The Kathavatthu (or Vinnanapada), ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogma.
Pali Non-Canonical Texts: The next body of Buddhist scriptures was composed some time during the Bactrian Greek and the Kushana periods of Indian history, since these foreigners favoured the Mahayana form of the religion that had been evolving ever since the first Buddhist schism.