Developing pre-service teachers’ reflective capacity through engagement with classroom based research.

Introduction

Reflection and thepre-service teacher

Following the early work of Dewey (1904; 1933) researchers and educational theorists continue to examine and interpret the concept of reflection and so influence teacher education programmes throughout the 20th and into the 21stcenturies(Kaplan, Rupley, Sparks, J. & Holcomb, 2007;Korthagen,1985; Pollard, 2002;Pultorak, 1993;Schön, 1987;Seban, 2009;Zeichner & Liston, 1987). The act of reflection can provide an important means of supporting informed and considered judgments about the effectiveness of classroom performance and facilitate moving practical activity towards a deeper learning experience (Boud, Keogh, & Walker, 1985). It may also be seen as a way of discriminating between the view of teaching as a routine or habitual activity and teaching as an intellectual and contemplative practice (Ryle, 1949).Hatton & Smith (1995, p.34) describe reflection as ‘deliberate thinking about action with a view to it’s improvement’. An authentic, reflective learning process therefore can also offer the means for pre-service teachers to acquire informed rationales around their own beliefs and practices. Schön (1987) suggests that reflective practice should develop the teacher’s skill in reframing an issue or problem, so it can be considered from different perspectives, rather than simply applying scientific theories to practical situations. It should also provide a balance between simply presenting information about the curriculum, and providing realistic opportunities for reflection on contemporary thinking and practice (Pollard, 2002). During pre-service,developing reflective capacityneeds to be a spiraling process where trainee teachers are given opportunities to observe, evaluate and improve their understanding within a range of challenging situations and so facilitate the development of new perspectives, interpretations and understanding (Rogers, 2001). Moran & Dallat (1995, p.25) describe how the process of encouraging reflection in pre-service teachers should be ‘…focused, systematic and structured’, adding that without reflection ‘…little learning is likely to occur’.
Pre-service education in Northern Ireland is designed around a teacher competency model (General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland (GTCNI), 2007). Calderhead (1991) however, has suggested that a possible danger in focussing closely on the achievement of skills or competences is that it can be at odds with the development of a pre-service teacher’s reflective capabilities. In Northern Ireland however, the guidelines that contextualize the competence framework offer explicit support for the view of the teacher as an active and enquiring researcher as being ‘…complementary to the Council’s concept of reflective practice’ with a clear acknowledgement that reflective practice should be integral to the development of a teacher’s professional identity and not simply to be ‘…bolted on as an additional skill’ (GTCNI, 2007, p.12).

Developing pre-service teachers’ reflective capacities

Various approaches are already used to promote the reflective capacity of pre-service teachers. These may require the reviewing of key research and literature, case study activities, directed curriculum assignments and lesson evaluation with an emphasis on the use of analytical rather than descriptive language (Hatton& Smith, 1995).
One further way can be to provide an opportunity for pre-service teachers to engage in a structured empirical research activity and use the rigors of the research process as a scaffold for developing early skills of reflection (Calderhead, 1993; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Pollard, 2002;Rossouw, 2009;Schön, 1983, 1987; Zeichner, 1990). Korthagen (2001) suggests that this can offer the potential means of restructuring accepted views through a process of structured critical analyses. Research also suggests that pre-service teachers with inquiry experience are more likely to be positive about curriculum implementation challenges than those who had not (Cruickshank (1987; Pollard, 2002).Maaramen Krokfors (2008) have gone so far as to suggest that the success of Finnish education may be built upon an approach to teacher education that places an emphasis on enquiry based research into aspects of pedagogy.
Personal engagement in empirical research can provide an authentic means for student teachers to increase their understanding of issues relating to the curriculum. Additionally, it can complement and contextualise curriculum studies programmes that may rely heavily on traditional lectures and seminars as means of delivering content knowledge (Eraut, Alderton, Cole, & Senker, 2000;Little, 2004; Palmer, 2007).

Theoretical framework

A range of common features among different theoretical approaches for reflective activity have been identified by Rogers (2001). Most of these models begin by identifying the issue to be examined or a problem to be solved, followed by the collection and organisation of informationrelating to the problem or issue prior to action, and then the collection ofdata resulting in the development of a planand decision showing that changes have taken place in thinking. The act of reflection should inevitably lead to evidence of new understanding (Bolton, 2005; Boud et al., 1985; Dewey, 1933; Langer, 1989; Schön, 1983; Seibert & Daudelin, 1999).

By engaging in a collaborative, empirical research study pre-service teachers will be required to go through the process of investigating and questioning assumptions that underpin curricular issues providing an early opportunity to test and explore the challenges of the classroom and the relationship between theory and practice (Brookfield, 1995). Ross (1989)has suggested that reflection is likely to move in three developmental stages which move from simply giving examples and describe practices to being able to make a detailed analysis from one perspective but recognise that different situations may require different approaches. To be critically reflective however, Ross suggests is the ability to view a variety of perspectives and an acknowledgment of the impact of education and the teachers’ actions beyond the classroom. A number of approaches have alsoset out to hierarchically categorise levels or types of reflection(Hatton & Smith, 1995; Sparks-Langer et al., 1990; Van-Manen, 1977). Forthe purpose of this research study an attempt was made todistinguish levels of reflective capacity using criteria derived from an adapted version of the Sparks-Langeret al., (1990) framework identified by Levels 1-6, with 6 as the highest level. The criteria for evaluating the pre-service teachers’ reflective commentary ranged from simple descriptive reportsat Level 1, to increasingly complex narratives that offered informed considerationof ethical, moral, political issues at Level 6.

Research aim

This paper examines how engaging in a small scale, qualitative, curriculum research study conducted early in the pre-service year was used as an opportunity to stimulate a cohort of student teachers’ reflective capacities. The aim of the cohort’s research was to examine perceptions of preparedness amongst a group of non-subject specialist primary school teachers to teach Art and Design within the Northern Ireland Curriculum.

Background
The Revised Curriculum in Northern Ireland

In September 2007 schools in Northern Ireland began the gradual phasing in of a Revised Curriculum for all pupils in primary schools and for those at Key Stage 3 (pupils aged 11-14) in post primary schools (DE, 2007) having evolved from almost a decade of review and consultation with all main stakeholders (CCEA, 2004; DE, 2006; 2007).

At its centre is the premise that while the curriculum should have regard for the needs of all learners as individuals, it should also develop them as effective contributors to society and to the economy and environment. While there is no explicit acknowledgement that the Northern Ireland Curriculum is based on a specific curriculum model, the language used in all the materials associated with it appears to fit comfortably into the model recognised as Outcomes Based Education (OBE). This curriculum model has a close relationship with educational competency models that are most associated with vocational education programmes not unlike the current model for pre-service teacher education in Northern Ireland. OBE places the learning emphasis away from ‘knowing that’ (knowledge of facts) and onto ‘knowing how’ (knowledge of skills) (Ryle, 1971).
The Council for the Curriculum Examinations and Assessment (CCEA)is the educational body in Northern Irelandwhichbrings together the three areas of curriculum, examinations and assessment for schools with a remit to advise government, monitor standards and award qualifications. In the documentation they provide to support the curriculum there is an implied assumption that all teachers including the generalist teacher in the primary schools will have the necessary range of tool skills to successfully take these ideas forward. While the curriculum aspires to create an increasingly skills-based, integrated and creative learning environment, it has yet to identify the extent to which all teachers (particularly in the primary sector) are sufficiently skilled and schools sufficiently resourced so as to deliver it effectively. This was corroborated by findings from The Northern Ireland Curriculum Cohort Study (Harland and Moor, 2001) which examined the impact of the whole curriculum as seen from the perspective of the learner which indicate that continuity and progression during the transition from primary to post primary schoolingis problematic.

To fulfil the statutory requirements of the Northern Ireland Curriculum it may not unreasonable to suggest that the many non-subject specialists teaching in the primary sector may now require increased in-service support so as to refresh or improve their current skills level.

Method

Setting, participants and research questions

The researchers for this study were twelve pre-service teachers completing a one year Post-primary Post-graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) specializing in Art and Design Education. The University of Ulster is the sole provider for Post-Primary Art and Design Education in Northern Ireland so this number while small, represents the entire population of pre-service teachers training to be Art and Design teachers in the province. Week three of the Post-primary PGCE programme involves a primary school placement providing an opportunity for each pre-service teacher to work alongside an experienced primary teacher and gain a practical insight into the challenges of implementing the primary curriculum for Art and Design. Having been introduced to the rationale and remit of the revised curriculum at the start of the PGCE programme the cohort were eager to discover the challenges facing a non-subject specialist who is required toteach Art and Design in the primary school.

The findings of the pre-service cohorts’classroom research (Part 1)are reported under the followingquestion:

  • What were the perceptions of generalist primary school teachers as to their capacity for effectively delivering the Northern Ireland Revised Curriculum for Art and Design?

Having completed the classroom based research study the pre-service teachers’ reflections on their own learning(Part 2) are then reported under the following research question:

  • What did your research tell you about the challenges of implementing the new curriculum guidelines for Art and Design in the primary school?

Procedure and data gathering
To prepare for their research study the pre-service teachers were introduced to contemporary developments in Education as part of their professional development programme through reading appropriate literature and participating in workshops designed to facilitate the examination of key issues relating to curriculum and the role of the teacher. This provided the background and content knowledge on which to base their planned research study. The second part of the preparation included a lecture and follow up seminar conducted by the PGCE programme tutor with the aim of introducing the students to qualitative research and some of the methods associated with it. The most appropriate methods were identified as the following: interviews and developing interview schedules; questions and questioning techniques; methods of classroom observation; the use of reflective diaries to support empirical research and an introduction to the process of conventional qualitative content analysis (Kondracki and Wellman, 2002, Vaughan et al., 1996).

Each pre-service teacher conducted a semi-structured interview with the Key Stage 2 (pupils aged 8-11) primary teacher they had been placed with during the primary placement week. The interview schedule had been designed collaboratively by the research cohort. While reflection is something that is internalized, it can also be a discursive or collaborative activity and research may also form part of the process (Gimmet et al., 1990; McIntyre and Hagger 1993).The interview schedule can be found in the appendix. Transcripts of these interviews were analyzed qualitatively and are presented as findings for Part 1 of the study.

During the week of the primary placement, thepre-service cohortwere also required to engage in an online peer discussion about their learning during the research experience (Part 2 of this study). They were specifically asked to reflect on one question:What did your research tell you about the challenges of implementing the new curriculum guidelines for Art and Design in the primary school?
There is a growing body of research on the instructional benefits of online,asynchronous communication to promote reflective thinking and encourage debate (Austin, 1997; Bodzin and Park 2000; Galanouli, & Collins, 2000; Lambe and Clarke 2002; Vonderwell 2003). The threaded, online discussion was initiated by the PGCE programme tutor on WebCt, a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) used by the University of Ulster. Thepre-service teacherswere then able to contribute their thoughts at anytime during the week of the primary placement. Gunawardena, Low Anderson (1997) describe such asynchronous communication as an important pedagogical tool that can enable those separated in time and space to engage in the active production of shared knowledge. It provides a way to engage in meaningful discourse by allowing the sharing of different viewpoints and ideas and the collaboration on problem solving and knowledge building activities (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996). This can be highly beneficial when gathering qualitative data as it encourages long term engagement with the topic or theme and can provide the opportunity to foster, ‘…high quality professional dialogue’ (Lambe and Clarke 2003, p.361).

Analysis of data

Eachpre-service teacher took an active part in the online discussion, providing a personal analysis where appropriate, or replying and discussing the common issues with the peer group. Thiswas archived and the transcripts downloaded and used as data for analysis.This enabled an examination of how the process of classroom research had influenced individual descriptive and reflective skills.The analysis of the interviews with the primary school teachers and the text of the online discussion which followed used the same qualitative approach (Vaughan et al., 1996) specifically searching for the following information:

  • Key themes or common threads in ideas, words, phrases or sentences found by reading and re-reading the interview transcriptions and the archived online discussionprovided themes or categories

Having first read all the text data thoroughly to get a sense of the whole (Tesch, 1990) words within the text that appeared to capture key thoughts or concepts and so establishing initial codes were highlighted (Miles and Huberman,1994). The aim was first to reflect on the full range of thoughts and concepts found within the classroom interviews. This was followed by an analysis of the pre-service teachers online discussion text as a means of evidencing their capacity to reflect on what they had learned.

Findings
The findings of this study are presented in two parts:

1. The findings of the classroom interviews as carried out by the 12 pre-service teacher researchers and;

2. The reflections of this research group about their own learning

Part 1: Classroom interviews

Three main themes emerged from the interviews with the primary school teachers. These were:

1perceptions about skills and personal efficacy

2inadequate in-service support

3the continued influence of academic selection at age 11 on thedelivery of the Key Stage 2 curriculum

Personal efficacy

During the online discussions the pre-service teachers reported that the primary school teachers consistently expressed concern about lack of personal efficacy and skills in relation to Art and Design.

I’ve had very little practical art training. My own skill level and experience of art is very limited and so that limits my confidence with the older pupils in the primary school (Teacher 6)

This expressed lack of confidence and competence was often longstanding, beginning during at pre-service education but continuing throughout their career:

I didn’t have much experience on the course of doing art other than in relation to other subjects for example in displays for science. To be honest I need more practical experience to improve my own understanding and general confidence in the subject (Teacher 11).

The limitation of pre-service programmes in preparing generalist primary school teachers to teach the visual arts was another recurring theme:

I had six one hour classes in my first year at teacher training college and another six in the second year. I haven’t had anything since and I just depend on talking to other colleagues about what they are doing (Teacher 3).

The need for in-service support

The researchersalso reported that in-service training to support the curriculum for Art and Design was less than adequate. There was focus on the need for more practical, skills based support:

There has been a lot of talk and rhetoric about intentions and outcomes and so on but not much actual practical help for the teacher to improve or develop their own skills so they can actually confidently deliver. (Teacher 8)

There was also concern expressed about the nature and quality of any current in-service provision:

The only training I’ve had since I left college was one day-looking at Key Stage 2. That was in 2005 or 6. I’m not confident in my own skills and what I need is continuous support to improve. The new curriculum seems to be focussed on writing lesson plans or units of work and in using all the trendy terms (Teacher 5).

One interviewee suggested that the support of the specialist was necessary to help the non-specialist teacher:

I would love the chance to observe an Art teacher in practice and I do feel I would gain much more from this than reading about what is an exciting art lesson and what the objectives should be (Teacher 1).