Exploration of the Solar System

Exploration of the Solar System

The following table provides a list of the various missions, past, present and future, sent to explore our local neighborhood. A brief description of each mission, along with the relevant web links is presented after the table. Operating missions are highlighted in boldface, missions in development (funded, hardware under construction) are italicized. Missions under study but not yet funded are indicated with a following ?. Capitalized names refer to acronyms, e.g., NEAR, which is NASA-speak for the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous mission. Missions are grouped in order of increasing complexity. Reconnaissance means an initial inspection, which, for planetary exploration, implies a fly-by mission. Survey missions involve entering orbit around the object and conducting a detailed investigation. Exploration implies a landing or in situ investigation (e.g., an atmosphere probe). Some missions include elements of both of the latter mission types. This approach to classifying missions is naturally also a time sequence of exploration; the less complex fly-by missions are attempted first, followed by more sophisticated survey and exploration missions.

Object / Reconnaissance / Survey / Exploration
Moon / Ranger / Lunar Orbiter / Surveyor
Luna / Lunar Prospector / Lunakhod

SMART-1

/ Apollo

Lunar-A

/ Lunar-A

Selene

Mercury / Mariner 10 /

Messenger

BepiColombo

Venus / Mariner 2 / Pioneer Venus / Venera 7,9,14
Mariner 10 / Magellan / Pioneer Venus

Venus Express

Mars / Mariner 4 / Mariner 9 / Viking 1,2 Landers
Mariner 6,7 / Viking 1,2 Orbiters / Pathfinder

Mars Global Surveyor

/

Mars Exploration Rovers

Mars 2001 Odyssey

/

Beagle 2

Mars Express

/

Phoenix

Mars Recon Orbiter

/

Mars Science Laboratory

Jupiter / Pioneer 10,11 / Galileo / Galileo Atmosphere Probe
Voyager 1,2 / JIMO ?
Saturn / Pioneer 10,11 /

Cassini

/

Huygens Titan Probe

Voyager 1,2

Uranus /

Voyager 2

Neptune /

Voyager 2

Pluto /

New Horizons

Asteroids / Galileo / NEAR /

Hayabusa

Deep Space 1 /

Dawn

Comets / Giotto /

Rosetta

/

Stardust

Deep Space 1 / /

Rosetta

Deep Impact

Following are several especially useful web sites containing detailed information about planetary missions:

solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/ {solar system missions, links to past, current & future probes}

science.hq.nasa.gov/missions/phase.html {All earth and space science missions, including astrophysics, planetary science, space physics, and geophysics}

discovery.nasa.gov {NASA's Discovery Program}

 {Jet Propulsion Lab's homepage}

nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ {NASA's data archive}

Taking the usual order for describing our solar system, the following material outlines the history of exploration of our solar system. For each planet or object, exploration has proceeded with increasing technological sophistication, from flybys to landers. We live in the era when the first real reconnaissance of our planetary backyard is underway.

For each planet or object, missions are listed in chronological order.

Mercury:

BepiColombo: sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=30

An ESA Cornerstone mission planned to launch in September 2012. Its journey to Mercury will last up to three and a half years. Twin orbiters will search for signs of possible water ice in some of Mercury's permanently shadowed craters, and study Mercury’s odd magnetic field.

Messenger: messenger.jhuapl.edu/

In July 1999 Messenger was selected as the 7th mission in NASA's Discovery program. It will become the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Mercury. Messenger was successfully launched in July 2004; it will arrive in orbit around Mercury in September 2009.

Mariner 10: pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/m10.htm

Mariner 10 made three fly-bys of Mercury in 1974-1975, and provided close-up images of about half the planet. Much of our current understanding of Mercury was provided by this spacecraft.

Venus:

Venus Express: sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=64

Venus Express is the European Space Agency's first mission to Earth's nearest planetary neighbor. The mission is reusing the same design as ESA's Mars Express. Venus Express primary science objectives will be to study the Venusian atmosphere in great detail. Launch is scheduled for October 2005.

Magellan - and pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/magellan.htm

A NASA radar-mapping mission conducted in the early 90s. Magellan provided a detailed global map of Venus using a powerful radar to see through the dense cloud layers which prevent an optical view of the surface from overhead. Magellan ended its mission with an aerobraking experiment, providing data for subsequent use of this technique at Mars.

Pioneer Venus - nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/pioneer venus.html

The Pioneer Venus mission consisted of two components, launched separately: an orbiter and a multiprobe. The orbiter reached Venus in Dec 1978 and provided the first detailed radar maps of the surface. The probes measured atmospheric properties during descent, and one probe lasted for about an hour after impact.

Mariner 10 - pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/m10.htm

Mariner 10 flew by Venus in 1974.

Venera - nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/venera.html

A series of Soviet space probes sent to Venus between 1967 and 1983. These probes both orbited and landed on the surface, returning the first and only photos from the Venusian surface. Venera 7 was the first probe to return data from the surface of another planet.

The Moon:

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter: lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions.html nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=LUNARRO

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a NASA Moon orbiting mission scheduled to launch in the fall of 2008. The proposed Lunar Reconaissance Orbiter would use powerful instruments and cameras to identify future landing sites for future robotic and human explorers. The orbiter would study the Moon's radiation environment, map the lunar topography in high-resolution, scan for resources in the polar regions and map the composition of the lunar surface. LRO is the first mission in a new NASA focus on lunar exploration.

Chang'e 1: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/prop_missions.html#change1

Chang'e 1 is planned to be the first of a series of Chinese missions to the Moon. The spacecraft will launch in late 2007 on a CZ-3A booster and orbit the Moon for a year to test the technology for future missions and to study the lunar environment and surface regolith.

Chandrayaan-1: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=CHANDRYN1

Chandrayaan-1 is an Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) mission designed to orbit the Moon over a two-year period with the objectives of upgrading and testing India's technological capabilities in space and returning scientific information about the lunar surface. It will also carry a 30 kg probe designed to be released from the spacecraft and penetrate the lunar surface. Currently set for a Sept 2007 launch date.

SELENE:

SELENE (SELenological and ENgineering Explorer) is a Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) lunar orbiter mission, Japan’s first large-scale lunar mission. The primary objectives of SELENE are to obtain global data on elemental abundance, mineralogical composition, topography, geology, gravity, and the lunar and solar-terrestrial plasma environments and to develop critical technologies for future lunar exploration. Launch scheduled for in 2006.

LUNAR-A:

A Japanese mission scheduled for launched in late 2005 or 2006. This mission aims to study the lunar interior using seismometers and heat-flow probes Two penetrators will be deployed on the lunar surface; one on the nearside, and another on the farside. This should allow LUNAR-A orbiter to observe lunar quakes. The probes will also try to determine if the Moon has a core and, if so, its size.

SMART-1: sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=10

SMART-1 is ESA’s first lunar mission. The spacecraft's primary function is to test new technologies, including an ion engine. After this phase, SMART-1 began a secondary mission to map and study the Moon in great detail. The orbiter will explore the darker regions of the Moon's south pole for the first time. SMART-1 entered lunar orbit in November 2004. Final calibration of instruments is expected in spring 05, then science operations will commence.

Lunar Prospector - lunar.arc.nasa.gov/

The third Discovery program mission, Lunar Prospector was launched to a lunar polar orbit in January 1998. It mapped the entire surface, to determine the elemental composition of the lunar crust, and search for the presence of ice in shadowed craters at the lunar poles. The spacecraft was intentionally crashed into the Moon in July 1999 in an (unsuccessful) attempt to vaporize possible ice deposits in one of those craters.

Apollo:

The Apollo program delivered the first human visitors to another world during 6 mission in the 1969-1972 time frame. Several hundred pounds of lunar rocks were retrieved for analysis, and a variety of scientific experiments left on the Moon. Scientists are still deciphering these data.

Lunar Orbiter: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunarorb.html

Five Lunar Orbiter missions were launched in 1966 through 1967 with the purpose of mapping the lunar surface before the Apollo landings. All five missions were successful, and 99% of the Moon was photographed with a resolution of 60 m or better.

Surveyor -

A series of five spacecraft which soft-landed on the Moon between 1966-1968, prior to the manned Apollo landings. Surveyor was designed to test the safety of the human landings.

Ranger -

First US spacecraft sent towards the Moon from 1961 to 1965. Ranger provided close-up images before impacting on the surface.

Luna: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunarussr.html

The name given to a series of Soviet lunar space probes launched from 1959 to 1976. These spaceprobes executed several firsts, including the first images of the lunar far side, and the first spacecraft to impact, orbit, and soft land on the Moon.

Mars:

Mars Science Laboratory: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/future/msl.html

Mars Science Laboratory will be a long-range, long-duration mobile lab. Its mission will be to continue the study of Martian geology from the surface and pave the way for a possible future sample return. This rover will be delivered to Mars on the first of a new generation of smart landers. Instead of using airbags to cushion the spacecraft during landing, the next-generation lander will use precision landing and hazard avoidance to touch down on promising but difficult-to-reach sites of scientific interest. In Dec 04, NASA selected the science instruments to be incorporated into the laboratory. Scheduled for the late 2009 launch window.

Mars Telecommunications Orbiter: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/future/mto.html

NASA's Mars Telecommunications Orbiter will be the first spacecraft to travel to another planet for the primary purpose of relaying communications to and from Earth. It will serve as a Mars communications hub for a fleet of Mars exploration spacecraft. Scheduled for launch in the late 2009 launch window.

Phoenix: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/future/phoenix.html and

phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/

Phoenix, scheduled for launch in August 2007, is the first mission in NASA's "Mars Scout Program." Phoenix is specifically designed to measure volatiles (especially water) and complex organic molecules in the arctic plains of Mars, where the Mars Odyssey orbiter has discovered evidence of ice-rich soil very near the surface. Phoenix will land near the icy northern pole of Mars between 65 and 75-north latitude. This mission utilizes components of the cancelled 2001 lander (the companion to Mars 2001 Odyssey orbiter).

Mars Exploration Rovers: marsrovers.nasa.gov/home/index.html

Launched in 2003, two “next-generation" Mars rovers reached the red planet in January 2004. Designed to trek about 100 meters each Martian day, the twin robotic explorers continue to send back spectacular images, as well as valuable data on the structure and chemistry of the martian soils & rocks which they encounter.

Mars Express:

sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=9

A European Space Agency mission, launched in June 2003, consisting of an orbiter and a small lander, named Beagle 2. Mars Express is ESA’s first mission to another planet. The main spacecraft entered into orbit in Dec 03. The lander failed to reestablish contact after reaching the surface, and probably crashed. Seven scientific instruments comprise the payload, providing new data on the atmosphere, and the planet's structure and geology. As of 3/05, ME is returning excellent data from Mars orbit.

2001 Mars Odyssey: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/index.html

Launched 07 Apr 2001, reached Mars orbit 24-Oct-2001. The orbiter is studying surface mineralogy and measuring the amount of hydrogen in the shallow sub-surface of Mars, providing clues about the presence of water, either past or present. MO continues in Mars orbit, employing all three of its primary instruments.

Mars Climate Orbiter: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/past/climorb.html and

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msp98/orbiter/

Part of the Mars Surveyor 98 mission. Launched in Dec 1998; lost at Mars orbit insertion, 23 Sept 99. Inaccurate targeting caused the spacecraft to burn up in the Martian atmosphere.

Mars Polar Lander: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msp98/index.html and

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/past/polarlander.html

Part of the Mars Surveyor 98 mission. Launched in January 1999, lost 03 December 1999 during descent to the surface. Possibly a software glitch in the main engine or perhaps it landed on a soft sand+ice mixture and toppled over.

Mars Global Surveyor - marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/

Reached Mars in Sept 1997, using extensive aerobraking to achieve the desired orbit. As of 01/05 MGS continues to conduct an imaging and altitude survey of the entire planet and is also providing data on the composition and magnetic properties of the surface.

Mars Pathfinder - marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/

Landed on Mars 04 July 97; tested several new lander technologies; deployed a Mars rover for the first time.

Viking 1 & 2 - nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/viking.html and

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/past/viking.html

First successful soft landing on Mars. NASA's Viking Mission to Mars included two spacecraft, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander. The primary mission objectives were to obtain high-resolution images of the surface, determine the structure and composition of the atmosphere and surface, and search for evidence of life.

Mariner 9: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/past/mariner8-9.html and

nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1971-051A

First spacecraft to orbit another planet. Reached Mars in 1972 and transformed understanding of the Red Planet. Mariner 9's cameras discovered Olympus Mons and Valles Marineris.

Jupiter:

Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter - prometheus.jpl.nasa.gov/

A NASA mission concept under study to explore possible subsurface oceans on Europa. As of 01/05, this mission is part of the “Prometheus” program, designed to develop nuclear-electric propulsion for deep space missions.

Galileo -

First Jupiter orbiter, reached Jupiter in December 1995. Has conducted a seven year study of Jupiter's moons, radiation belts and atmosphere. During 1999-2001, Galileo has specifically targeted Io and Europa, making repeated mapping passes as it passes close to these moons.

Voyager 1 & 2: voyager.jpl.nasa.gov and

nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/voyager.html

Fly-by missions in 1979 & 1980, which discovered Jupiter's ring, volcanoes on Io, hinted at water on Europa, and provided striking images of atmospheric motions on Jupiter.

Pioneer - spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html

Pioneer 10 and 11 were the first spacecraft to leave the inner solar system and reach Jupiter and Saturn, in 1974 and 1979 respectively.

Saturn:

Cassini -

Launched in October 1997, Cassini was inserted into orbit around Jupiter in July 2004. First spacecraft to orbit Saturn, its 4-year mission is to study Saturn's rings, moons, and atmosphere.

Huygens Probe - and sci.esa.int/huygens/ The Huygens probe separated from Cassini and descended to the surface of Titan on 15-Jan-05, passing through Titan's surprisingly dense atmosphere. First landing on a moon in the solar system other than Earth’s moon.

Voyager 1 & 2 - vraptor.jpl.nasa.gov/voyager/voyager.html

Fly-by missions in 1980 & 1981 which discovered braided rings, shepherd satellites, ring “spokes", and Titan's atmosphere.

Uranus:

Voyager 2 - vraptor.jpl.nasa.gov/voyager/voyager.html

Fly-by mission in January 1986.

Neptune:

Voyager 2 - vraptor.jpl.nasa.gov/voyager/voyager.html

Fly-by mission in August 1989. Discovered ice geysers on Triton.

Pluto:

New Horizons - pluto.jhuapl.edu/

New Horizons is scheduled to launch in January 2006, swing past Jupiter for a gravity boost, and reach Pluto and its moon Charon, in July 2015. Then the spacecraft would head deeper into the Kuiper Belt to study one or more of the icy mini-worlds at the edge of the solar system. This mission is designed to reach and image Pluto before its current atmosphere re-freezes

Asteroids:

Dawn - www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/dawn/

Selected in December 2001, Dawn is NASA's 9th Discovery-class mission. Dawn will explore two of the largest protoplanets remaining intact since their formation: the asteroids Ceres and Vesta. Launch is planned in 2006, with arrival at Vesta in 2010, and Ceres in 2014.

Hayabusa:

nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=2003-019A

Hayabusa is Japan's asteroid sample return mission. The journey to collect pieces from asteroid Itokawa will take about 17 months. The spacecraft will remain with the asteroid for about three months before heading back to Earth. The sample return capsule will detach from the spacecraft and plunge through Earth's atmosphere for an intense re-entry with temperatures 30 times great than those experienced by Apollo spacecraft. After re-entry, the container will parachute to Earth where it can be brought to a lab for study. Launched May 03, will reach the asteroid in summer 05, sample return set for summer 07.