Abdullah-Olukoshi, H. (1991) The Dynamics of Gender and Class in Kano's Manufacturing Sector: Two Case Studies, Paper presented at International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, The Hague, 15-26 April 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NIGERIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA, WOMENS VOICES). This paper documents processes of gender and class oppression in two manufacturing firms in Nigeria, one unionized and the other non-unionized. It is found that in the unionized factory issues of gender are of primary concern to women workers, especially job segregation on the basis of gender, and there is a general frustration with the failure of the union to address the question of gender. In the non-unionized factory, in contrast, class issues were of overriding importance to women workers, as they fought to establish a union against management wishes. It is argued that such findings demonstrate the dangers of approaches which promote class inequality above gender inequality or vice versa. Instead it is necessary to be aware that the extent to which women recognize gender or class contradictions in their lives is context dependent, and to develop a dialectical theory of class and gender.
Abraham-Van der Mark, E.E. (1983) The Impact of Industrialization on Women: A Caribbean Case. Chap. 15. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 374-386. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, CURAÇAO, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, HYDROCARBONS, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MARGINALISATION THESIS, MULTINATIONALS, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). This study of Curacao documents historical processes of industrialisation and their impact on women. The industrialisation process began with a Shell oil refinery established early this century. This had a negative impact on women. They were excluded from employment in the refinery (except for a few women doing white collar work) and from employment in the shipping, construction and chemical companies which were later established, their role in small trade was taken over by foreign male immigrants or visitors, and the agriculture and craft sectors in which they had played an important role declined. Women were increasingly confined to dependence on marriage and children, domestic work or petty trade.
In the late 1950s cutbacks and contracting out at the oil refinery led to labour disputes and increasing unemployment. Faced with a deteriorating economic situation in the late 1960s a policy of attracting electronic assembling industries was introduced, laying heavy emphasis on the huge supply of cheap female labour. Texas Instruments established a plant in 1968, employing 1 600 women assembling semi-conductors for minimal wages. In spite of the work being repetitive, exhausting and poorly paid, it was valued by the women because it provided regular income and social contacts. However, amidst union pressure for higher wages the company laid off workers and then, in 1976, pulled out completely. Few women found other employment, the supplementary trading activities they had established decreased or ceased because the women lost access to both potential buyers and start-up capital, and at least half of them have now emigrated to the Netherlands (Paraphrased from text).
Acero, L. (1984) Technical Change in a Newly Industrializing Country: A Case Study of the Impact on Employment and Skills in the Brazilian Textiles Industry, SPRU Occasional Paper Series 22, University of Sussex, Brighton. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). "This paper explores the effects of technical change on labour use. It analyses the consequences upon the number and nature of jobs, the skill requirements in the labour force, the sexual division of labour, and the practices of recruitment, training and promotion implemented by a large Brazilian textile firm. These are presented in the context of the policy measures introduced to facilitate the modernization of Brazilian textiles during the 70s. The empirical evidence from Brazil is also used to explore some of the more recent theoretical contributions to the study of technical change and labour use, particularly in respect of the choice of technique, deskilling and segmented or dualistic labour markets" (pp. 6-7).
Technical change did produce an absolute and relative reduction of jobs in the firms, a large proportion of them performed by women for low wages relative to the real skills involved. Jobs only performed by women tended to be downgraded, regardless of skills, and hence rewarded less, and forewomen were paid less than foremen. Reduction in the skill component of jobs brought about by the new technology enabled unskilled workers to be recruited and freed the firm from the historical trends shaping labour supply, whereby women had tended to be spinners and men weavers. Moreover, all the new jobs were paid less than those under the old technology, relative to output (From author's conclusion).
Acero, L. (1991) Textile Workers in Brazil and Argentina: A Study of the Interrelationships between Work and Households. United Nations University, Tokyo. 305 pages. (ISBN 92-808-0753-6) (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CORE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). "The two studies presented here investigate how structural changes in industrialization in developing countries influence changes in relationships within households; in particular, how these structural transformations affect the distribution of power between men and women and between age groups within the domestic unit. At the same time, the studies are intended to show how the ways families respond to structural transformations and reorganize affect these structures.
Using life histories, which enabled the recording of micro-changes in the level and management of household income, distribution of household chores, and attitudes towards fertility and sexuality, household changes occurring over the past 20 years were analysed; covering just over 1,000 family members in Brazil and the same number in Argentina, the survey gathered substantive information on household composition, behaviour, and individual perceptions of work.
Among the policy implications arising from this study, one that stands out is the need for policy makers to consider how new technologies affect the quality of work and life among different occupational categories, particularly among low-level industrial workers, and, as emphasized in the study, between genders. Another important implication concerns the need to reconsider the way labour statistics are gathered, classified, and utilized.
The original data and new insights featured in this study show clearly the value of a comparative approach when determining occupational, household, and individual responses to macro-level economic events and, consequently, when assessing the impact of development policy" (From summary on back of book).
Acero, L. (1993) Conflicting Demands of New Technology and Household: Women's Employment and Training Needs in the Brazilian and Argentinian Textiles, Paper presented at the International Workshop on Information Technology and Women's Employment: A Global Overview, United Nations University/Institute for New Technologies, Maastricht, The Netherlands, April 26-29, 1993. (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DERIVATIVE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). Based on primary research and interviews with 520 workers, "this paper sets out to explore changes in the pattern of female employment, the nature of work, skills and training in the textiles industry, in the light of technical changes of an informatics base in Brazil and Argentina" (p. 1). The modernization and increasing shift to production for export of the textile industry has produced new job opportunities for women, as task simplification expanded the type of work mainly performed by women. However, it is not clear that "these new opportunities involve higher quality work, less hazards and a generally safer work environment" (p. 37).
The skills women derive from socialization are becoming redundant through technical change, and their jobs are subject to casualization as a result of flexible specialization. Reprofessionalization is confined mainly to male jobs such as those of technicians and there is some evidence that highly skilled jobs are becoming even more unattainable for women. Moreover, the lack of basic literacy, numeracy and familiarity with micro-computers among low-income middle-aged women militates against their incorporation into the changing occupations. It has been suggested that a new gender division of labour is being created "where core workers, in the organized regulated activities, will be increasingly males and flexible homeworkers (with their forms of work increasingly casualized) will be women" (p. 38). New work hazards are appearing, and are particular intensified in unregulated homeworking. Furthermore, household conflicts over the role of working women highlight women's continued failure to be identified as 'real' workers (From author's introduction and conclusion).
Acevedo, L.D. (1990) Industrialization and Employment - Changes in the Patterns of Womens Work in Puerto-Rico. World Development, 18, pp. 231-255. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, PUERTO-RICO, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "The debate on the impact of industrialization on female employment in developing countries has revolved around the issue of whether women are integrated into or marginalized from the labor market by industrialization. This paper presents the results of an empirical study of the changes in the sectoral and occupational distribution of female employment in Puerto Rico during the period 1947-82. The study divides the process of industrialization into two stages according to the type of industries promoted by the government development agency, Fomento, under the various Industrial Incentive Laws enacted during this period. Changes in female employment by economic sector were assessed through a regression analysis, while changes in occupation were assessed through the analysis of descriptive statistics. The study found that, while women's participation in the labor force grew, the type of occupations they filled remained sex segregated, with few exceptions. Integration into the labor force was thus associated with a new sexual division of labor and does not necessarily mean an improvement in the employment situation of women as the integration hypothesis proposes." (Summary at the head of the article).
Addison, T. and Demery, L. (1988) Wages and Labour Conditions in East Asia: A Review of Case-study Evidence. Development Policy Review, 6, pp. 371-393. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT POSITIVE, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SINGAPORE, THAILAND, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The evidence on wages and labour conditions in the exporting sectors of the NICs studies is decidedly mixed. From some perspectives, the process of export led industrialization has been very much in the interests of the working population. Employment has expanded, poverty has been considerably reduced, and real wages have increased. The status of women has noticeably improved through their participation in the labour force, especially in Malaysia and Singapore. On the other hand, these welfare gains must be qualified by other less beneficial indicators, such as the long work hours that characterize the countries' export sectors. In other words, there are grounds for concern over labour welfare in these NICs, but they have been overstated by those relying on casual observation.
The record as regards wages is a case in point. As a general rule, wages are not lower in the exporting sectors of these countries than they are in the domestic labour markets, and in some cases they are higher, taking into account the many factors which determine remuneration. There are exceptions to this, notably the lower wages paid to female workers in medium-sized South Korean firms. If we are obliged to generalize, the evidence of the studies suggests that workers in export industries earn more than their counterparts elsewhere, other things being equal.
Hours of work are unquestionably a major problem for workers in the exporting sectors of the countries studied. Whether it is the sheer length of the working week (as in Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand) or the distribution of the work hours under shift work (in Malaysia and Singapore), workers in the exporting sectors appear to be worse off than those in the rest of the domestic labour market. Labour legislation on this issue is not particularly effective, with a 48-hour standard applying in all countries except for Singapore. Moreover, our evidence indicates that firms do not comply with the provisions of national legislation, and many workers (e.g. in Thailand) are not aware of their legal rights to an overtime premium. This being said, workers generally undertake overtime willingly, being eager to maximize weekly earnings, although in South Korea, they may be coerced by employers into working such long hours.
Generally, the evidence reviewed here points to major gains in labour welfare in the countries that undertake ELI. The two most important qualifications are the long hours of work involved, and the restrictions imposed on the freedom of association. However, the question remains as to how, given the political will, governments can best improve the situation, and in particular, whether the process of law is an effective means. In the former case, it is doubtful that labour legislation will achieve a great deal without improvements in labour inspection. The latter problem is pre-eminently one for the lawyers.
Whether the weaknesses we have identified in labour welfare under ELI justify trading sanctions against these countries is open to serious doubt. The standards observed in the exporting sectors are not out of line with those operating in the domestic labour markets of the countries concerned, and there is therefore no evidence that wages and labour conditions are deliberately kept low in these sectors. Moreover, trade sanctions against these countries are unlikely to improve the lot of workers in the export sectors. Most proposals for social clauses in trade agreements are based on the application of ILO labour standards. These legal instruments are unlikely to be effective in the developing countries of East Asia, given the number of firms involved and the limited resources available for labour administration. As these countries have experienced export-led growth, the levels of living of the workers engaged in the leading sectors have improved. Refusing to trade with these countries can hardly be in the interests of these workers" (Authors' conclusion).
Afshar, H. (1985) The position of women in an Iranian village. In: Women, Work, and Ideology in the Third World. Ed: Afshar, H. Tavistock: London, pp. 66-82. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, IRAN, MIDDLE EAST, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This case study of the Iranian village of Asiaback documents the development of a household based carpet weaving industry from the late 1960s onwards. Weaving is an all female task, girls beginning as early as six years old. Despite the important contribution which their work makes to household income, women's subordination has not diminished but increased. They do not have ownership rights over the product of their work, the carpets being sold by men, and they cannot sell their labour power. Thus "their ability to weave carpets has enslaved them even further in an archaic mode of production which is kept separate from the money economy of the men" (p. 84). That women's position has not improved indicates that the economic base alone cannot explain inequality between the sexes.
Aguiar, N. (1983) Household, Community, National, and Multinational Industrial Development. Chap. 5. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 117-137. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). Aguiar shows how multiple coexisting modes of production under state subsidy and linked to the activities of national and multinational enterprises fail to meet the needs of either a developing national economy or a developing family structure in Brazil. In the case of a multinational textile corporation workers use their salary for housing, so are threatened not by the loss of their housing but the loss of their work. The old paternalism of plantation and even slave economies seems benevolent in contrast to the policy of the multinational corporation that opportunistically seizes a government sponsored infrastructure only to close operations when profits sink to less than a third of annual income. On a cashew plantation housing is granted to workers as part of the wage, but when seasonal or cyclical downturns reduce the demand for labour workers are evicted. On a Government irrigation project housing is granted only to males heads of household, disadvantaging women's decision making role, and the threat of dismissal is used to generate conformity to government policy. (From author's conclusion and Introduction, J. Nash).