Papal authority ever increasingly extends into political and economic spheres.

Indulgences are issued, offering forgiveness for sins in exchange for money.

Money from indulgences funds such works in rome as st. peter’s basilica.

Catholic church’s emphasis on doing “good works” conflicts with the values of a young monk named martin luther, who believes faith should be paramount,

Luther writes to pope leo X calling for an end to indulgences and a debate on theology.

Pope leo baits luther into challenging church doctrines in a debate in 1519, and then condemns him.

Martin luther burns the papal bull of condemnation in open protest of the pope.

Luther begins to preach that people of Europe should ignore the influence of the catholic church & the pope, and find salvation through faith in jesus Christ.

Luther’s own preaching convinces him to abandon monasticism and marry a nun.

Over time, German princes and other influential leaders grow inspired by his values and ideas, made readily available through use of the printing press.

John calvin adds to this growing protestant movement with his own concepts of predestination, simplicity, and independence from papal authority.

The society of jesus, (aka Jesuits) under ignatius Loyola are established in 1540.

Council of trent first meets in 1545 to clarify catholic doctrines, reaffirm papal authority, and enforcing residence of bishops in their own dioceses.

The counter-reformation would eventually challenge the protestant reformation in such a way that it would lead to bitter wars of religion, and violence between Christians across Europe into the 17th century.

Folklore
Magic and forest spirits abound everywhere.
Crop failures and death of livestock is believed to be caused by supernatural forces.
Angry and jealous people, often women, accused of using evil magic and witchcraft.
Biblical scripture
Miracles, saints, and devils all influence people’s lives.
Earthquake of 1755 in Lisbon Portugal purported to be god’s wrath.
Social outcasts often linked to devil worship and labeled as deviants who might corrupt others.
Impact of beliefs
Nearly 100,000 people put on trial for witchcraft; more than half were killed.
75% of those tried were women.
Women deemed more likely to turn evil, especially widows and those lacking fathers or husbands.
Public hangings, burnings and executions became public spectacles.

The scientific revolution

Aristotle / Greek philosopher; world made up of 4 elements / early analysis of solar system
Pythagoras / Greek mathematician; simple mathematics and theorems can explain all physical objects / celestial bodies were spheres
Nicholas Copernicus / Polish monk/mathematician; sun sits at center of universe, not earth
Tycho Brahe / Danish astronomer; planets move in elliptical orbits around sun
Johannes Kepler / German astronomer; planets move in elliptical orbits around sun
Galileo Galilei / Italian astronomer; strong telescope / sun and moon have surface features, not perfect orbs
Robert boyle / English chemist; experimental methods / trial-&-error research
Isaac newton / English mathematician; theory of gravity

The enlightenment

Voltaire / French writer & satirist; “no opinion is worth burning your neighbor for” / wrote Candide (1759) as social commentary
Matteo ricci / China is more enlightened than Europe, ruled by “philosopher-kings” who quest not for war and territory but for discoveries
Alexander pope / “nature and nature’s laws lay hidden in night, but god said, ‘let newton be’, and all was light.”
Benjamin franklin / American diplomat; facilitated ideas between old world and new
Cesarebeccaria / Italian politician; wrote on crimes and punishments (1764) exposing corruption of European judicial systems
Rene descartes / French philosopher; pioneer in logic and problem solving /
“I think, therefore I am”
Denis diderot / French scholar; compiled 35 volume the encyclopedia
Isaac newton / English mathematician; theory of gravity
Hugo Grotius / Dutch scholar; critic of 30 years war / wrote on the law of war and peace (1625), laying basis for rules of modern warfare
Thomas Hobbes / English philosopher; wrote the leviathan (1651) suggesting strong all-powerful monarch is needed to restrain inherently evil people
David Hume / Scottish philosopher; established skepticism / “why would a prefect god create an imperfect world?”
John Locke / English theorist; believed representative government could best serve a rational populace who possessed natural rights
Baron de Montesquieu / French theorist; determined government should possess a separation of powers / climate should impact one’s gov’t
Jean-Jacques Rousseau / French thinker; wrote the social contract (1762) devising direct democracy derived of the people’s “general will”
Adam smith / Scottish economist; wrote the wealth of nations (1776) criticizing mercantilism and devising concepts of capitalism