What's an Information Architect?

Liane Cooper

October 29, 2009

Thesis Statement:

Across business literature and throughout the business marketplace – data, information and knowledge are recognized as an organization's most valued asset. "Knowledge workers", according to thinkers such as Peter Drucker (who is credited with coining the phrase)are the creators, transformers, maintainers, distributors, re-crafters and users of these information products. Whether it's classified as data, information or knowledge, even the business world has recognized that it must be managed. Classification and organization of business data, information and knowledge are the things about which librarians and information scientists are keenly interested, and business people have decided they must be leveraged in the new world economy.

"Managing knowledge must become part of how every organization does business. Those who fail to manage what they know simply cannot be serious players in the new business environment." -- Laurence Prusak, Executive Director, IBM Institute for Knowledge Management(Rumizen, 2002)

To become and remain competitive in the modern marketplace and the new world economy, businesses have also recognized that they must establish and maintain a "Web presence". Commerce has gotten an entirely new look! This relatively new electronic presence allows for the conduct of business-to-business, person-to-person, person-to-business and other transactions –taking the form of bits and bytes moving at the speed of light.

Businesses that have been brick-and-mortar with genuine Main Street store fronts for decades have been establishing a presence on the "Web". Maybe it's just a web page or maybe it's a sophisticated portal, but somebody has created that instance of the electronic store front.

It's likely that an Information Architect had a hand in designing, creating, testing and maintainingthat business presence. Here, we'll examine the definition, the history, the role and the skill sets of the Information Architect in today's business marketplace. We'll conclude with some findings from a subjective examination of expectations of Information Architects' skill sets in today's job market.

What's an Information Architect?

"Information" is hard to define. One person's information is another person's data, or another person's knowledge. There's plenty of confusion about a concise definition, and the debate fills books, journals, and blogs. Sue Batleycites Elizabeth Ornafor help with what she believes to be one of the central definitions relating to information architecture,

"Information is what human beings transform their knowledge into when they want to communicate it to other people. It is knowledge made visible or audible in written or printed words or in speech" (Orna, according to her book,Information Strategy in Practice, 2004).

But wait, there's more to do. How should wedefine"architect"?– One who plans, designs and supervises construction of something according to specifications provided by those who will pay the bills?

Perhaps a genuine architect would be a good source for a stronger definition. Richard Saul Wurman (born in 1935), an architect, graphic designer, author, editor and publisher offered this –

"…The architect must

Ascertain[the occupants']needs (i.e., must gather information about the needs),
Organize the needs into a coherent pattern that clarifies their nature and interactions, and
Design a building that will – by means of its rooms, fixtures, machines, and layout, i.e., flow of people and materials – meet the occupants' needs." (Wyllys, 2000)

Since the 1970s,Richard Saul Wurman has been recognized as the originator of the phrase, "Information Architect" and as a founder of the discipline of information architecture. As gifted on the left-side of the brain as he is on theright-side, Wurman defined an Information Architect as,

"…1 - The individual who organizes the patterns inherent in data,making the complex clear.

2 - A person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to findtheir personal paths to knowledge.

3 - The emerging 21st century professional occupation addressing the needs of the agefocused upon clarity, human understanding, and the science of the organization of information." (Wyllys, 2000)

The underlining in the previous quotation is my own, as during my research on this topic, I have found these foundational phrases (or variations on the theme) to recur in definitions about Information Architecture. They also appear in prescribed skill sets, employment postings and job descriptions for Information Architects:

Human Needs (including human interaction, usability, understanding, intuitive flow)
Structuring (including maps, tools and guides)
Organizing(including clarity)
Labeling (including classification and taxonomy)
Finding (and accessibility or findability)
Managing (maintaining, securing, archiving, building intelligence)
Art & Science (especially applied to information organization and presentation on the digital landscape)

Louis Rosenfeld & Peter Morville,pioneers in the discipline of Information Architecture and authors of Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, mention that to define something – it's sometimes effective to define what it is not. They say,

"…Mapping the boundaries of information architecture is…slippery. Some things are clearly not information architecture:

Graphic design in NOT information architecture.
Software development in NOT information architecture.
Usability engineering is NOT information architecture.

Make's sense, right? But as soon as you start working within the messy reality of web site design and construction, you find yourself in the gray areas between disciplines." (Rosenfeld & Morville, 2002)

Can we then assume that Information Architects are not graphic designers, software developers or usability engineers? That's messy, indeed. If you follow the discussion and their logic further, the duties of an Information Architect also bump up against the roles of interaction engineers, experience designers, content managers and even knowledge managers.

Sue Batleyseems to agree that drawing boundaries to define what our topic is not is a messy business.

"If information architecture can be described as a discipline, it is not one with clearly defined boundaries. Reading the literature that uses the term in its title or text, it is possible to identify a whole range of topics some clearly interrelated, some seemly disparate, that contribute to the subject area. Adding to the confusion, it is clear that a lot of literature that does not explicitly claim to be about information architecture actually is." (Batley, 2007)

We've tried to discover what Information Architecture is not.

So– What is information architecture?

Early inInformation Architecture for the World Wide Web, the authors try to make it simple for the uninitiated seeker. They offer four points in attempt to "make the complex clear" as Wurman would say,

"In.for.ma.tionar.chi.tec.ture n.

The combination of organization, labeling, and navigation schemes within an information system.
The structural design of an information space to facilitate task completion and intuitive access to content.
The art and science of structuring and classifying web sites and intranets to help people find and manage information.
An emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape." (Rosenfeld & Morville, 2002)

This sounds simple enough, but as mentioned previously, the literature is full of debate. Louis Rosenfeld and Peter Morville line up on one side of the debate – and on the other side is Sue Batley.

Rosenfeld and Morville believe that the term “information architecture” is distinct. “We use the term information to distinguish information architecture from data and knowledge management.”

-vs-

"It cannot be assumed, though, that everyone is now in agreement about the scope of the subject area. Some authors would argue that information architecture is synonymous with taxonomy (see Rosenfeld and Morville's third definition above …, for example); this does not seem helpful as the taxonomy is only one part of the information environment. Content management systems (CMS) are often treated as being synonymous with information architecture in the literature; again this is a rather narrow perspective. There is also an increasing body of literature around knowledge architecture which appears to be exactly the same as information architecture but with an emphasis on knowledge sharing to increase the appeal to the corporate community." (Batley, 2007)

As frequently happens with professional disciplines, professional organizations are founded. These organizations help the discipline to evolve, help the professionals to develop and help the business community to understand what the professionals do. The organization for information architects, founded by Louis Rosenfeld and Christina Wodtke is the Information Architecture Institute (IAI).The IAI is an international organization committed to advancing and promoting the practice of information architecture. The institute tries to rise above the fray of the ongoing debate and says on their website,

"We define information architecture as the art and science of organizing andlabeling websites, intranets, online communities and software to supportusability.

As information proliferates exponentially, usability is becoming the criticalsuccess factor for websites and software applications. Good IA lays thenecessary groundwork for an information system that makes sense to users."

(Information Architecture Institute, 2007)

Who's Who in Information Architecture?

It seems only right that the reader should be able to get acquainted with some of the personalities mentioned throughout Information Architecture literature.

Richard Saul Wurman

He was born in 1935.

…“Information Architecture" appears to have been coined, or at least brought to wide attention, by Richard Saul Wurman
…trained as an architect …but who has become … a skilled graphic designer
…and the author, editor, and/or publisher of numerous books that employ fine graphics in the presentation of information in a variety of fields.
…In the 1960s, …as an architect, he became interested in matters concerning the ways in which buildings, transport, utilities, and people worked and interacted …
…[He developed]…further interests in the ways in which information about urban environments could be gathered, organized, and presented in meaningful ways to architects, to urban planners, to utility and transport engineers, and especially to people living in or visiting cities. (Wyllys, 2000)

"With the publication of his first book in 1962, at the age of 26, Richard Saul Wurman identified the singular passion of his life: that of making information understandable both for himself and others.
Since then he has gone on to author, design and publish a further 81 books, each about a subject or idea that he personally had difficulty understanding.

2004 Winner of the AIGA Medal – the most distinguished in the field, awarded to individuals in recognition of their exceptional achievements, services or other contributions to the field of design and visual communication." (AIGA Medalist 2004: Richard Saul Wurman).

Information Architects, edited by Richard Saul Wurman with contributions by 20 masters in the visual display of information received mixed reviews. While the editors at Amazon.com rated it "Very Highly Recommended", some readers disagreed.

"But why is the book so hard to read? Is it the abundance of white on black text, of exclusively sans serif type, of a little block as a substitute for standard paragraph indentation? ...Why is it hard to cite the book? If Peter Bradford is the editor, what is Wurman? And why is it so hard to find the publisher information?" (Editorial Reviews & Customer Reviews, Amazon.com)

Louis Rosenfeld

"Louis Rosenfeldis an independent information architecture consultant, and founder and publisher of Rosenfeld Media, a publishing house focused on user experience books. He has been instrumental in helping establish the fields of information architecture and user experience, and in articulating the role and value of librarianship within those fields.

As a graduate student in library and information studies in the late 1980s, Lou became convinced that the skills of librarians were grossly undervalued — in the coming information explosion, who else would supply the skills of organizing, classifying and labeling information? …

…At Argus Associates, a pioneering consulting company that Lou co-founded in 1991, those additional perspectives — usability engineering, ethnography, technology analysis and others — were successfully folded into the mix, and the company became perhaps the best-known firm in the field of information architecture…

…With Peter Morville, Lou co-authored the best-selling book, Information Architecture for the World Wide Web (O'Reilly, 1998; second edition, 2002; third edition, 2006), Amazon.com's "Best Internet Book of 1998." With over 100,000 in sales, it has been acclaimed as a classic and is used as a standard text in many graduate-level classes.

… He is co-founder [with Christina Wodtke] and past board member of the IAI, the Information Architecture Institute, the sole professional organization of information architects…" (Louis Rosenfeld.com - Biography)

Peter Morville

"…born in Manchester, England.

He has a graduate degree in Library and Information Science, and built on the organization of information practices of this domain, going beyond it to find a way to put some useful order in Web sites.

In December 1993 he graduated from the library school at The University of Michigan.

Together with Louis Rosenfeld he headed Argus Associates, the consulting firm which was at the forefront of the nascent field of information architecture until its demise following the Dot-com-bust of 2001.

Peter Morville is now President and Founder of Semantic Studios, a leading information architecture, user experience design, and findability consulting firm… Peter teaches at the University of Michigan." (Peter Morville)

Christina R. Wodtke

"Born October 22, 1966… an American businesswoman and specialist in the area of information architecture.
…a co-founder and past president of the Information Architecture Institute.
…founded the Webby-nominated magazine of design thinking Boxes and Arrows.
Wodtke is frequently interviewed as an expert on strategic information architecture, design management, and innovation." (Christina Wodtke)

Christina Wodtke is co-author of a new popular book on the discipline, Information Architecture: Blueprints for the Web, Second Edition (2009).

Sue Batley

Senior Lecturer in Information Management at the London Metropolitan University.

PhD in Visual Information Retrieval: Search and Browsing Strategies in Pictorial Databases. University of Aberdeen, 1989.
BA (Honors) Librarianship and Information Studies. Newcastle-upon-Tyne Polytechnic, 1985.

In her book, Information Architecture for Information Professionals, she favors structuring information "out of chaos" frequently experienced in organizations. She defines IA as the Information Architecture Institute does:
The structural design of shared information environments;
The art and science of organizing and labeling websites, intranets, online communities and software to support usability and findability;
An emergingcommunity of practice focused on bringing principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.

What’s the role of the Information Architect in organizations?

Management consultants tell us all the time that we should be able to explain our role in a nutshell … so what's the "elevator pitch" for Information Architect, delivered in just a few seconds? Here's what Rosenfeld & Morville had to say about "explaining things in plain language..."

“I’m an information architect. I organize huge amounts of information on big websites and intranets so that people can actually find what they’re looking for. Think of me as an Internet librarian.”
“I’m an information architect. I help my company by making it easy for customers to find our products on our website. I’m a kind of merchandiser. I apply one-to-one marketing concepts on the Internet.”
“I’m an information architect. I’m the one who takes on that information overload problem that everyone’s been complaining about lately.”(Rosenfeld & Morville, 2002)

The IA Institute defines roles for Information Architects on their site,

"Some organizations have clearly defined positions for Information

Architects, who play leading roles in development processes for everything

from file systems to product architecture.

Other organizations have noformalized positions, but count IA as a critical competency for many, such asinternet strategists, interaction designers, and knowledge architects.

In bothtypes of organizations, best practices in information architecture support the

development of interfaces that facilitate the flow of useful and relevant

information to the user."(Information Architecture Institute, 2007)

Traditional Skill SetSkill Sets in the Marketplace

As part of the investigation of this topic, I conducted a subjective survey of skills required in the marketplace today. (See attached Excel document.) These are the steps:

I selected core definitions by Wurman, Rosenfeld & Morville, the IAI. Adhering to core definitions of the pioneers in the field would surely help me to identify an Information Architect by a 'Traditional Definition'. Here's an example ofthose core phrases from Wurman:
organizes the patterns inherent in data
making the complex clear
creates the structure or map of information
allows others to find personal paths to knowledge
addressing the needs
focused upon clarity
focused upon human understanding
focused upon science of the organization of information

I remembered thatajob spec for Information Architects was based on a traditional skill set by my former employer, The Washington Post.A copy of that job specification document from the human resources manager was requested and received. This was my baseline for selection of candidates for this investigation.

I searched, selected and reviewed 15 postings for "Information Architect" in the job title hit list from Monster.com. (As a matter of methodology, I decided that going to the job postings on the IAI site would not offer the breadth of what is found in the "general population" or general marketplace.) I had collected one other posting (from hostedjobs. openhire.com)and had it on-hand, in case I needed a substitution. Ad titles selected from the nationwide pool were:

Information Architect(3)
Senior Information Architect (1)
Data Warehouse/Business Intelligence Architect (1) – fromhostedjobs. openhire.com
Information Security Architect (1) – finally eliminated, met only 2 of the established criteria
Information Systems Architect (1)
Enterprise Information Architect (2)
Information Portal Architect – Manager (1)
Internet Architect (1)
Information Architect – Software Development (1)
Information Architect, User Interface Designer (1)
Information Architect, Document & Record Management (1)
Principle Information Architect (1)
Executive Enterprise Information Architect (1)

Next, I developed a list of skills (in an Excel spreadsheet) from the popular terms used by the various IA experts. As I began to review job postings I expanded the list of skills. For example, excellent written and verbal communication should be possessed by the most suitable candidates for the Information Architect job. Skills were grouped by type:

Wurman (core)
Rosenfeld & Morville (core)
Information Architecture Institute (IAI core)
Planning
Organizing
Usability
Technical or Operations
QA/ Testing
General – and within this group,
Job level (exec or non-exec),
Degree requirement (Computer Science, LIS, Other such as Design, Psychology, etc)
Communication skills
Management skills (on-time and in-budget)
Facilitation skills
Collaboration skills

Conclusion