(7) Word-Formation

(7) Word-formation

(Types of Word-formative Processes and their Manifestation in English and in Czech)

-word-formation = the creation of a new word

-x semantic change = a change in the meaning of a single word

-x formation of idiomatic expressions

-indistinct boundaries btw the individual word-forming processes: some words may be a result of more processes

Derivation

-derivation = a word-formative process attaching affixes to a base morpheme of a word (prefixes and suffixes)

-typical of CZ: prác/e, prac/ovat, pracov/ní, pracov/ně

-E: mostly suffixes, some of them typical of particular word categories

-nominal suffixes: -ee (addressee), -ess (actress), -ette (usherette)

-verbal suffixes: -ise (recognise), -ify (magnify)

-adjectival suffixes: -able (unaccountable), -ish (childish), -less (useless)

-word-class specific suffixes: ADV -wards (forwards)

-ambiguous suffixes: -ing (drawing [kresba], tiring [únavný])

-also: John’s [possessive –s]; easily [adverbial –ly]; singing [verbal –ing]

Zero Derivation, or, Conversion

-conversion = a word-formative process shifting a member of one word category to another category without changing its form

-typical of E (back, primarily ADV: She came back.; also N: I hate doing things behind somebody’s back.; ADJ: Are the back numbers of the magazine still available?; V: He backed the car into the garage.)

(1)Conversion of N and V

(a)N with a wider range of meanings converts > into Vwith a restricted range of meanings (bridge [přemostit], view [dívat se], voice [vyřknout])

(b)V with a wider range of meanings converts > into N with a restricted range of meanings (bend [ohyb], break [přestávka], blow [rána])

-often with phrasal verbs (have a look, give a kick, take a glance)

(c)wrt synchrony no more possible to tell which of the words was converted into which ((to) aid, (to)appeal, (to)approach)

(2)Conversion of ADJ and N

(a)total conversion(> homonyms) = the converted word retains its graphical form and its phonetics + adopts the inflectional morphology and syntax of its new category

-ADJ > N (adult, criminal, female)

-in CZ the only type of conversion (dospělý, nadřízený, nemocný)

-N > ADJ: rare (chief, choice, top)

(b)partial conversion (> homographs) = the converted word retains its graphical form x changes its phonetics x does not adopt the inflectional morphology x adopts only the syntax of its new category

-N > ADJ: frequent, pre-modifying N + head N (a drawing competition [soutěž v kreslení] x a competition drawing [soutěžní kresba])

-the pre-modifying N usually in SG (passenger list, child labour, the five-year plan x but: goods train, arms race, sports ground, clothes-hanger)

-the converted ADJ semantically classifying: dirt road [cesta s prašným povrchem], danger signal [výstražný signál], an Africa specialist [odborník na Afriku]

-the derived ADJ semantically qualifying: dirty road [špinavá cesta], dangerous bend [nebezpečná zatáčka], African specialist [odborník z Afriky]

-semantically ambiguous: the mother tongue interference theory; the annual average world output of steel; late summer evening dusk; fresh fruit market x new fruit market

-ADJ > N, marked by the presence of a DET x absence of inflectional morphology

-semantically an abstract N: the beautiful, the supernatural, the unknown

-semantically a collective: the old; the English, the French

-past participles semantically an individual: the accused, his betrothed, the Almighty

(3)Conversion of ADJ and V

-ADJ > V: (to) warm, (to) cool, (to) calm

-more often derivation: bright > to brighten; deaf > to deafen; flat > to flatten

Agglutination

-agglutination = a word-formative process adding clearly distinguishable affixes to an existing word

-primary in agglutinative languages: Turkish, Japanese, Hungarian

-rare in isolating languages: E

-E: shame/less/ness

Borrowing (> loanword)

-borrowing = a word-formative process adopting both the form and the meaning of a word from another language

-E: yogurt (from Turkish); zebra (from Bantu); café (from French); genesis (from Latin)

Calque (> loan translation)

-calque = a literal translation of the meaning of individual words constituting a collocation in another language

-CZ: (pot flower >)hrnková květina; (Übermensch >) nadčlověk

Coining

-coining = a word-formative process turning proper names into common nouns

-mostly trade marks

-E: (Hoover >) to hoover; (Xerox >) to xerox

Compounding

-compounding = a word-formative process putting together mostly two lexical morphemes, two existing words, without changing their form

-CZ: pan/táta

-E: hand/book; black/bird; never/the/less [note: the latter incl. three components]

(a)- N + N = N: bookcase, skyline, earthquake

-ADJ + N = N: greenhouse, newcomer

-PREP + N = N: undergraduate, oversight

-V + N = N: scarecrow, spendthrift, lackwit, pickpocket, playboy

-N + ADJ = ADJ: world-wide, foolproof

-PREP + ADJ = ADJ: overwhelming, outspoken

-PREP + V = V: undersell, upset, overthrow

-x V + PREP = phrasal verb

(b)quotational compound: boys-will-be-boys [attitude]; get-rich-quick [method]; stick-in-the-mud [attitude]; marry-go-round; mother-in-law; what-d’ye-call-‘em

(c)reduplication, often combined with rhyme: airy-fairy [fantasy ideas]; higgledy-piggledy [páté přes deváté]; shilly-shally [to hesitate]; willy-nilly [chtě nechtě]; wishy-washy [nemastný neslaný]

(d)intensifying noun modifier: brand-new; cock-sure; dead-tired; stone-deaf; stock-still

Blending, or, Portmanteau

-blending = a word-formative process putting together mostly two lexical morphemes, two existing words, and changing their form

-produces neologisms

-E: (smoke + fog =) smog; (breakfast + lunch =) brunch

-sometimes puns: (sexy + secretary =) sexetary

Clipping

-clipping = a word-formative process shortening long polysyllabic words by taking only a part of them, sometimes with a change of graphical form

(a)back clipping = retains the beginning of the word (ad/vertisement; math/ematics; exam/ination)

(b)fore-clipping = retains the final part of the word (tele/phone; omni/bus; turn/pike)

(c)middle clipping = retains the middle of the word (in/flu/enza; re/fridge/rator)

(d)also: (perambulator >) pram; (how do you do >) howdy

-sometimes results in misunderstandings: vet = a veterinary / a veteran

Abbreviating

-abbreviating = a word-formative process using the first letters of words constituting an established phrase

-mostly international abbreviations, mostly words of Latin origin

-e.g., i.e., etc.

Acronyms

-acronym = a word formed from initial letters or syllables of the words in a phrase

-mostly from established and frequently referenced multiword terms, names of institutions, organisations, etc.

-CZ: (Česká dopravní kancelář>)ČEDOK

-E: UNO; (light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation >) laser; (radio detection and ranging >) radar [note: the latter incl. also non-initial letters]

(a)acronym = a cover term for abbreviations pronounced either as the names of individual letters (GB), a word (NATO), or a combination (compact disc read-only memory > CD-ROM)

(b)initialism, or, alphabetism = an abbreviation pronounced as the names of individual letters

(c)acronym-intialism hybrid = an abbreviation pronounced as a combination of the names of individual letters and a word

(d)pseudo-acronym = an abbreviation resembling the sounds of other words when pronounced as intended (ICQ > I seek you)

(e)recursive acronym = an abbreviation being itself an expansion of one initial (VISA International Service Association > VISA)

Back-formation

-back-formation = a word-formative process removing seeming affixes from existing words

-a king of folk etymology: rests on an erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word

-uses mostly nouns ending –er or –ar

-E: to teach > teacher x but: (beggar >) to beg; (option >) to opt for; (editor >) to edit; (donation >) to donate; (babysitter >) to baby-sit; (television >) to televise

Infixation

-infixation = a word-formative process inserting one word into another

-a spontaneous but artificial process characteristic of slang language

-E: (hallelujah + bloody >) halle/bloody/lujah; (absolutely + blooming >) abso/blooming/lutely