AP Mid-term Review Material 2016
Research Methods
Applied research-
o industrial/organizational psychology- study ways of how to boost workers productivity, morale
o Human Factors Psychology – psychologists keep human factors in mind when designing machines / technology. Ex. gas pedals are located a few feet away from the car seat so that a human can reach it.
RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that physically hits his wife at least 2 times per year.) We operationally define variables so that we can replicate.
Random selection- guarantees every member of a population has an equal chance of being picked. Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100 Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative
Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at Butler would have roughly 15% Latino-Americans).
EXPERIMENT
Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by manipulating a variable. The disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory environment to the real world.
Experiemntal/Control condtions- experiments requires these 2 groups. The experimental group
receives the independent variable to see if had any effect.
Independent variable- manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if you’re testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or
depression.). This is given to the experimental group only.
Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome
and is often a score or number.
Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or experimental group. (group receiving treatment) . This controls for any preexisting differences in the groups (bias). Differences in the participants is called participant relevant confounding variable.
Placebo/ Placebo Effect- (example is a sugar pill) this controls for possible subject bias where the subjects knowledge of the treatment may cause them to think they are having the effects.
CORRELATION
Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A Positive correlation is when both variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.) Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used
.
Naturalistic observation- . Research conducted in natural habitat (animals or humans). No interaction with subjects.
Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger population.
STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency- mean (avg.), median (middle score), mode (most frequently occurring score)
Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1. The farther away from 0 (either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.
Scatter plots- used to show positive/negative correlations. If line goes up it’s positive.
All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines
Animal Research-
- Clear, scientific purpose
- Humane treatment
- Acquire subjects legally
- Use procedures’ employing least amount of suffering feasible
Human Research-
- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature).
- No coercion (cannot force to do)
- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.
- No mental/physical risk/harm
-anonymity/confidentiality must be guaranteed
Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience)
Dendrites- root like, makes synaptic connections with other neurons. Receives the neurotransmitter on receptor sites
Axon - longest part of neuron.
Myelin sheath- covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses.. Breakdown of Mylin Sheath (MS) is related to Multiple Sclerosis (MS).
Terminal Buttons of axon (aka end buttons, terminal branches, synaptic knobs))- branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmit
Neuron in a resting state – negative ions within the cell and mostly positive ions on the outside
Action potential electrical message firing
Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)
Refractory period – brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)
Sodium and Potassium Ions
· Neuron has a negative charge at rest (analogy was dirty urine(negative) water in toilet
· Slightly positive charge sodium ions on the outside (analogy was clean water waiting to rush in when flushed)
Neurotransmitter- ______Function Problem associated with it
a.) Acetylcholine (Ach) motor movement Alzheimer’s (lack of Ach)
b.) Dopamine motor movement Parkinson’s and Schizophrenia (excess)
c.) Serotonin mood Depression
d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain Addictions
Reuptake – The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron
Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain such as when you sense pain from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to raise your hand to catch a ball
Reflexes are processed by the spine.
CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) – all other nerves in your body
Autonomic – controls automatic functions of the body – such as heart, lungs
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once your parachute opens you calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)
Somatic – controls voluntary muscle movements
STUDYING THE BRAIN
Accidents – Phineas Gage – thought, planning emotion are located in front of brain
Lesion- removal or destruction of part of the brain.
EEG- detects electrical activity of brain waves. Uses electrodes
CAT (aka CT Scan) - x-ray of brain structure only
MRI- locates brain material. Most detailed picture
PET- activity of brain in pictures. Use of radioactive glucose to locate activity by locating where metabolism of glucose is taking place
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Medulla- heartbeat, breathin
Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)
Hypothalamus – body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst
Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)
Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldn’t forget it)
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Broca’s Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)
Wernicke’s Area- language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe (aka prefrontal cortex)- thought, planning, judgement
Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.
Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)
Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.
Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones including adrenal (adrenaline), testes (testosterone), ovaries (estrogen)
· Endocrine System Glands:
o Pituitary – controls other glands
o Thyroid – controls metabolism
o Pineal – sleep/wake cycle
Nature vs. Nurture: Best ways to answer this debate include:
Twin Studies- Bouchard found 100 sets of twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.
Finding similarities among humans from very different cultural backgrounds.
Developmental Psychology
RESEARCH METHODS
Cross-sectional – studies participants of different ages.
Longitudinal – studies same participants over long period of time.
Maturation- biological influence on development. Cannot be learned (Ex.-walking, rope climbing) Infant motor development usually in same sequence.
REFLEXES
Habituation – decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested with the ball.
Theory of Mind – the belief that others think, feel and perceive – develops in the preoperational stage
· Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)
PARENTING
Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)
~Harlow’s monkeys. Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved that babies do not form attachment to mothers just because of nourishment but rather contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming stressed/frightened when placed in new situation
~Mary Ainsworth studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother. This suggested whether they had formed secure or insecure attachments which effected then throughout their life. Secure babies explore environment, stressed when mom leaves and come to parents upon return
STAGE THEORISTS
Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to end each stage closer to the first concept.
o Trust v. mistrust- (Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world
o Autonomy v. shame/doubt (favorite word is “No”- shows independence, toilet training)
o Initiative v. guilt (favorite word is Q. Why?)
o Industry (or competence)
v. inferiority (elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at elementary tasks.
o Identity v. role confusion (adolescence= teens) test out different roles
o Intimacy v. isolation (20’s-30’s)
o Generativity v. stagnation (middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation
o Integrity v. despair. (Late adulthood) – look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.) life was meaningful
PIAGET”S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema- aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences, stereotypes etc.
Assimilation- attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for all 4 legged animals)
Accommodation- changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses, some are cows)
o Sensorimotor (0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.
o Preoperational (2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism
(belief that humans make everything), establishes a theory of mind
o Concrete operational (7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the
shape of glass changes. (Tall glass, short fat glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich in half seems like more. Logical thinking also develops.
o Formal operational (11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason
Criticism of Piaget’s
cognitive development - Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and pass through stages faster than expected.), Development may be more continuous than occur in discrete stages.
KOHLBERG”S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- gave people of varying ages the Heinz Dilemma (Q. Should he steal drug to save wife?)
o Preconventional- morality based on rewards and punishment.
o Conventional- morality based on social acceptance, approval. Ex. obeying laws.
o Postconventional- morality based on ethical principles (Ex- breaking a law that you think is unjust
(civil disobedience)
Criticism of Kohlberg
from Carol Gilligan - Boys/Girls come to moral conclusions differently.
Fluid Intelligence our speed at which we solve abstract problems and reason. This decreases as we age.
Crystallized Intelligence our accumulated knowledge of facts/. This stays the same as we age.
Sensation - activation of our senses (eyes, ears, smell, taste, touch)
Selective Attention (cocktail party effect) - can only focus on one thing at a time. However, if sense carries meaning (such as hearing your name) then focuses changes.
· Step 3 – Transduction – light is transformed into neural impulses
o Rods (sensitive to night vision- black/white), cones (color vision). Hint: Co/Co (bipolar, ganglion cells)
· Foveal vision (more cones, clarity aka visual acuity) vs. Peripheral vision . Rods are located at the periphery of the retina.
· Step 4 In the Brain- Hubel and Weisel discovered feature detectors- specific parts of the visual cortical area that detect form, shape, horizontal lines, angles etc.- Ex. Kittens that were not exposed to vertical lines.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
Trichromatic theory- 3 types of cones in retina blue, red, green = primary colors of light.
Opponent- Process theory- 3 pairs (6 colors) red/green, yellow/blue, black/white pairs Explains color blindness (usually a red/green deficiency) and afterimages. (Stare at black, green, yellow flag)
HEARING
Sound waves have amplitude (height of wave-loudness) and frequency (length of wave- think of how frequent a wave comes by. This determines pitch)
Sound Localization – sound waves from the right arrive in the right ear before the left. This is how we can tell the direction of a sound. Sounds coming from directly in front, above or behind us are more difficult to locate since the waves arrive at the same time
CHEMICAL SENSES
Taste (Gustation) – taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Smell (Olfactory) - what we taste is combination of both chemical systems
Vestibular Sense tells us about how our body is positioned and helps us maintain our sense of balance. Tubes from semicircular canals in the ear fill with liquid as body moves. (Explains Roller coaster nausea, dizziness.)
Perception - process of understanding/interpreting our sensations
Figure ground illusion- part of visual image is the figure and part is the background (EX. Vase and two faces)
Gestalt Rules- Perceptual grouping to make objects meaningful.
a. Proximity- objects closer perceived to be grouped
b. Similarity- objects similar in appearance are grouped. watching a basketball game and seeing 5 red players and 5 green players rather than 10 players.
c. Continuity- objects with continuous form
d. Closure- filling in gaps. (Ex.- seeing a connect the dots picture and saying, “that’s a dog”
e. Connectedness- seeing objects as connected if they meet
Constancy – our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in angle, light, distance. There are 3 types of constancy (shape, size and color)
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff- experiment by Eleanor Gibson used to measure when an infant develops depth perception. (Using glass table)
Monocular cues require only one eye for depth (EX- artists use these in paintings to show depth)
a. Linear perspective- railroad tracks being drawn as in the distance
b. Relative size- larger = closer
c. Relative Height – higher in field of vision = distant
States of Consciousness
SLEEP
Circadian Rhythm- 24-25 hour biological/thought progress patterns.