DRAFT 1
AFFORESTATION, REFORESTATION AND FOREST MANAGEMENT:
Natural Resource Conservation, Management and Carbon Sequestration within the Scheme of Payment for Environmental Services (PES)
Patrick Karani
Bureau of Environmental Analysis International (BEA-International)
www.BEAINTERNATIONAL.ORG
December 2004
AFFORESTATION, REFORESTATION AND FOREST MANAGEMENT:
Natural Resource Conservation, Management and Carbon Sequestration within the Scheme of Payment for Environmental Services (PES)
1. Introduction
Protection, management, conservation and restoration of the environment are highly deliberated at international levels and generate regional and national programs and policies that impact local community livelihoods. A majority of local communities are dependent on the natural capital or assets that require effective conservation and management strategies. Some of these strategies are embedded in conservation practices and alluded to by emerging international treaties such as the 1992 Biodiversity Convention and Climate Change, 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Global Warming and Reduction of Greenhouse Gases, International Waters, Management of Wetlands, Combating Land Degradation and Desertification, Prevention of Persistent Organic Pollutants, Afforestation, Reforestation, Revegetation and management of crop land and grazing land. These treaties provide opportunities for innovative financing for environmental products and services. But the challenge is how local communities dependent on natural assets for livelihood benefit from these opportunities.
A majority of both public and private institutions promoting frameworks for improving natural resource management are promoting the valuation of the services and products provided by the ecosystems. Thus, Payment for Environmental Services is one of these schemes that is gaining support and innovatively evolving as a practical mechanism with potential for benefiting both “providers” and “beneficiaries” of environmental services and products. The government of Kenya’s appeal to increase forest cover from some 2% to 27% is an incentive that motivates valuation of the forestry services and products.
1.1. Background
Kenya is located along the equator in Eastern Africa, neighbouring the countries of Tanzania, Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Because of diversity in climatic conditions, Kenya is endowed with a wide variety of landscapes with estimated 48.6 million hectares under wooded land, having vast areas of shrubland and barren land, but also productive areas where intensive agriculture is practiced (GOK, 2002, First National Communication). Agricultural areas coincide largely with areas of increased precipitation, mainly along the shores of Lake Victoria and along the slopes of Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon. East African region as a whole, is endowed with a variety of landscapes with vast areas of woodlands and barren land dominated by sparse trees, upper montane forest, deciduous/semi deciduous broad leaf forest, thorn forest and lowland evergreen forest broadleaf rain forest. In addition, intensive agriculture, afforestation, reforestation and forest management are practiced. Although, at the present time, the region has less than 2% forest cover resulting in low carbon stock above ground. National forest action plans and programs have stipulated an increase of forest cover but with limited or no incentives. However, practical incentives are dominantly getting associated with emerging Global Carbon Markets where Carbon is considered as a tradable commodity in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and requires certification of the carbon offsets. Some institutions have been involved with certification protocol on ad-hoc basis and or on learning by doing approach since inception of the 1992 United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol that stipulate for reduction of emissions through trade or carbon offsets.
Kenya is a signatory to most of the international treaties that promote effective management of the natural resources. Some few primary forests in Kenya are still intact as protected forests while indigenous vegetation has been widely altered through land use change that has contributed to alteration of vegetation cover. Alteration to vegetation cover particularly through deforestation result into release of greenhouse gases (GHG) determined by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1992) as the primary cause of global warming and climate change. The GHG emissions associated with land use change include Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Nitrous Oxides (N2O), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Methane (CH4) and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx). It is estimated that about 26,000 Kilo-tons of wood is consumed annually in Kenya and responsible for releasing about 27,000,000 Gg of CO2 equivalent (Government of Kenya First National Communication to the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, June 2002). In addition, about 6,500 Gg of CO2 equivalent is released into the atmosphere as a result of on-site slash and burn practices and decay of biomass. It is estimated that non-forest trees have high capacity of carbon intake at about 9,000 kilo hectares carbon intake is 17,600 kilo-tons of CO2 equivalent while natural forests uptake of 3,400 kilo-hectares is 1,300 kilo-tons of CO2 equivalent. However, plantation forests in Kenya have the highest carbon intake per unit kilo-hectare estimated at 5.910 kilo-tons whereas non-forest trees have the lowest at 0.2 Kilo-tons per kilo-hectare, while natural forests have carbon intake of 0.378 kilo-tons per kilo-hectare. Degraded and abandoned land provide areas for rehabilitation and enhancement of carbon sinks. In addition, abandoned and managed land make provisions for carbon sinks in Kenya as well.
Within the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) framework, it would be useful to find out at the present time how Kenya has approached implementation of the international treaties to the benefit local communities already undertaking conservation practices and managing abandoned land. What institutional frameworks and arrangements have been established to compensate for or enhance payment for environmental services. Internalizing environmental damage is one key factor that would leverage environmental and social costs. But this implies that local communities already undertaking conservation and management of natural resources will have to realize an increase in their social costs. The increase in their social costs or marginal costs could be paid for by environmental support programs. The practicality of this incentive is subject to well established institutional frameworks and programs.
The Bureau of Environmental Analysis (BEA) International is already working in this field with focus on emerging carbon markets and determining how local communities involved in afforestation, reforestation and forest management can benefit from the 1992 Climate Change Convention, 1997 Kyoto Protocol and emerging carbon funds. In addition to finding out what Kenya is doing within the scheme of payment for environmental services, an assessment and analysis of international, regional and local institutions working on conservation and environmental matters generate useful ideas, data and information for policy, plans and implementation of effective conservation programs of mutual benefits to both local communities and participating institutions through payment for environmental services.
Climate and ecological zones of Kenya: Large portions of Kenya (74%) receive less than 600 mm of precipitation annually. The remainder of the country receives more than 600 mm precipitation and agricultural activity is thus more suitable. Figure 1, indicates the precipitation distribution within Kenya, and figure 2 indicates the agro-climatic zones within Kenya as well as the suitability to grow agricultural crops in the different zones.
Figure 1: Precipitation distribution (millimetres) / Precipitation (mm) / Percentage of country
<200 mm / 0.6 %
200-400 mm / 50.0 %
400-600 mm / 23.8 %
600-800 mm / 8.7 %
800-1200 mm / 9.9 %
1200-1600 mm / 5.2 %
1600-2000 mm / 1.4 %
2000-2400 mm / 0.4 %
>2400mm / 0.0 %
Figure 2: Agro-climatic zones (Braun et al. (1980)) / Zone 1 — High potential for production, some part too cold and wet for optimum Production. Some forest land.
Zones II and III — Land suitable for crops where most food is grown.
Zones IV and V — Marginal, high risk areas but still some crops grown; rangelands in most parts of zone V.
Zones VI and VII — No cropping, except under irrigation.
Hydrologically, Kenya’s rivers flow into two watersheds: the Indian Ocean and into Lake Victoria, which subsequently flows north into the Nile River. In both Lake Victoria and the Indian Ocean fishery industries are present.
Biodiversity
- Kenya has protected 12.3% of its total land area, and has 336 different protected areas. Where 14 protected areas cover more than 100,000 ha each, and one which covers an area greater than 1,000,000 ha.
- Kenya has four Ramsar wetland sites of proclaimed international importance, totalling 91,000 hectares.
- Furthermore Kenya has five Biosphere Reserves, totalling 1,335,000 hectares.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Afforestattion/Reforestation Potential
Kenya currently has less than two percent forest cover remaining. With increasing populations there is an increased demand for wood products as well as agricultural land. These demands pose a significant threat to the remnant of existing forest. Introducing and promoting agroforestry systems can provide an alternative by supplying both wood products and environmental services to the communities. Agroforestry systems can provide farmers with tangible benefits, such as timber products, fruits, fuelwood, medicinal extract, and provide fodder (among other benefits). In addition, agroforestry systems can also play a significant stabilization role by reducing erosion, improving soil fertility, moderating water infiltration rates and in reducing the pressure exerted on remnant natural forests.
Land use characteristics
General
Landuse / Total area (ha) /Agriculture (dense) / 4,567,599
Agriculture (sparse) / 3,241,730
Barren lands / 7,713,599
Bushlands (dense) / 25,046,202
Bushlands (sparse) / 10,834,409
Forests / 996,108
Grasslands / 1,205,887
Plantations / 118,000
Swamp / 679,373
Towns / 47,659
Water bodies / 1,196,747
Woodlands / 2,164,776
Total Area / 57,812,089
Forests: There are five types of forests predominant in Kenya. These include:
1. Sparse trees/parkland;
2. Upper montane forest;
3. Deciduous/semi-deciduous broadleaf forest;
4. Thorn forest;
5. Lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest
Agriculture: The predominant food crops are maize, rice, wheat, bananas and cassava. The main export crops are coffee and tea.
Land use change trends, available space for CDM-AR: Due to the relatively small area of productive agricultural land available in Kenya there is intense pressure to produce food on a relatively small footprint. Agricultural activities are intensive and put high environmental pressure on the land available. Under these circumstances it will be difficult to find large tracts of productive land for CDM projects. The project idea is therefore not to develop large plantation style plantations but instead promote agroforestry systems within the existing agricultural setting. Implementing an agroforestry project into this system is regarded more suitable as it will give the farmers a livelihood through agricultural crop production and additional advantages of income and products from agroforestry activities.
Socio-economic characteristics
Population: The table below provides some descriptive statistics for Kenya.
Descriptive statisticsPopulation (Census 1999): / 28,686,607 persons
Population Density (2000): / 52.8 (persons / km2)
Average Annual Population Growth Rate, 1980-2000 / Total 3.0%
In rural areas 1.8%
In urban areas 6.6%
Life Expectancy at birth (years), 2000-05 / Female 49.9
Male 48.7
Percent of Adults Ages 15-49 infected with HIV or AIDS, 2001 / 15.0%
Adults and Children Infected with HIV/AIDS, 2001 / 2,500,000
Adult Literacy Rate, 2002 / Female 79%
Male 90%
Percent of population living on less than $1 a day / 26.5%
Percent of population living on less than $2 a day / 62.3%
GDP per capita, 2000 / in 1995 US dollars = $322
in current international dollars = $1,003
Percent of GDP earned by: / Agriculture, 2000 20%
Industry, 2000 19%
Services, 2000 61%
Economic activity: The backbones of Kenya’s economy are agriculture and tourism. In 2000, the agricultural sector accounted for 20% of the GDP. Large parts of the population make their living from subsistence agriculture.
CDM-AR potential: Information on land tenure, institutional capacity, stakeholders involvement, cost level, social and economic benefits and risks: Mush of the land in Kenya is titlehold land, However, in some regions traditional culture is very deterministic in how land is distributed and managed. Cultural beliefs influence land tenure rights, tree planting acceptability, and often the roles and responsibly delegated to different members of the community. The implication is that potential CDM projects need to consider how land being proposed for tree planting is owned.
Policy characteristics
General Environmental, land use and climate policy of the country, political stability: In 1999, Kenya passed the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act, which established a National Environment Council and a National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). The Act places responsibility for proper management of the environment upon Provincial and District Environment Committees.
Kenya’s climate change office falls under the joint direction of NEMA and the Ministry of the Environment. Kenya has submitted its first national communication to the UNFCCC.
Kenya is a functioning democracy that recently had a peaceful transition for the government of Daniel Arap Moi to a national coalition government following elections.
CDM-AR potential: Kenya has not yet ratified the Kyoto protocol, but is expected to do so within the next 4 months. Thus, there is no national CDM office in Kenya as yet, but Kenya has a National Climate Change Office, directed by Emily Massawa. This office has produced the first National Communication to the UNFCCC. Kenya has organized one stakeholders meeting to raise awareness of the potentials of CDM financing among parties likely to be interested in these opportunities in the private and public sectors. Kenya has shown a keen interest to gain experience in CDM projects.
Kenya ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994, and the Vienna Convention in 1988.
The term carbon offsets may sound new to most people, including those ones who work in the environmental field. Yet, the concept is not entirely new, particularly to stakeholders directly affected by environmental and natural resource management. Based on economic principles of demand and supply, create a market situation that provides incentive systems, mainly through the price system, that provides the link between the providers of the carbon offsets through sequestration activities and beneficiaries of the offsets that apply towards targets in compliance with domestic measures and regulations. In principle, East African region stands an opportunity to benefit through afforestation, reforestation and forest management certification initiatives as these directly involves local community participation, that are practical and have potential for generating carbon stock through sequestration.