The Rinderpest factor in the Great Famine of Ethiopia
Famines are enormously complex social and biological phenomena and it is quite hopeless to expect a generic theory of their origins or consequences…(Watts, 1987).
During the late 19th century, Ethiopia suffered one of the worst famines in the country’s history. The intensity and the ripple effect of the various factors that contributed to the famine make this period a crucial point in the country’s history.
The social structure, the economy, the political makeup, the climate and the land, and outside influences all contributed to the long dark days in Ethiopian history commonly referred as Kifu Ken, meaning ‘mean days’ or ‘evil days’. The historical account slightly varies among those chronicled by historians and those passed orally from generation to generation. One of the outcomes of the Great Famine is the drastic alteration of Ethiopian historical path and especially that of Africa.
By examining each piece that played a role in the formation of the Great Famine of the late 19th century, we can see where each piece intersects. In order to understand the relationship between the factors it is important to look at the climate, the land, social structure, socio-economic and political makeup, outside influences, and all other calamities that befell the people. For each factor, on its own, would not have resulted in the same merciless devastation as it did when in combination with the other factors.
Due to Ethiopia’s geographical location and landscape, the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall has brought about three main seasons, which differ from the common two seasons typically found in most tropical areas (Degefu, 1987). The three seasons are known as Bega (dry season or summer), Kiremt (long rains) and Belg (short rains). These seasons are the basic guidelines for the country’s agricultural structure. Kiremt is the main planting season for most food corps whereas the Belg is used for long season crops. Bega, which follows Kiremt, is harvest season. Climatic divergence in the slightest could mean the loss of crops. It is also imperative to have a limited rainfall in Bega (dry season) to maintain good forage for livestock.
Historical data of rainfall amount is not available since the meteorological records were not kept until the 20th century. One of the characteristics of Ethiopian rainfall is that it exhibits high variability in time and space (Degefu, 1987). However, in the 1880’s, both the long rains and the short rains failed, triggering drought season. The hot dry season burnt the crop before it was ready for harvest (Degefu, 1987, Pankhurst 1964, Kebbede 1992). Drought is categorized into three types: perennial drought, seasonal drought, and intermittent drought. Ethiopia suffered intermittent droughts numerous times. Such droughts occur when precipitation fails or when in areas of seasonal drought, the rainy season does not materialize or is greatly shortened (Hidore et al 1975).
The great East African rift valley, which runs diagonally through Ethiopia, divides the country into two unequal parts. The largest half contains the mostly mountainous north and the southwestern highlands. The smallest half contains the southeastern highlands and the lowlands. Before the establishment of modern Ethiopia, the northern highlands were highly populated. Their temperate climate and fertile soils accounts for attracting most of the population (Kebbede 1992, Zewde 2001). The rich fertile soil of the valley and the highlands accounted for abundant crop yield as chronicled by various travelers (Pankhurst, 1964). This wealth earned Ethiopia the name ‘bread basket’.
Many of the imperial seats before the end of the 19th century were in the north. Even though there were farming peasant in each provincial principalities, farmers were concentrated towards the northern highlands while herders were typically concentrated in the lowlands in the southern and eastern regions. This regional labor division is also part of the traditional characteristics of the various tribes that inhabited the northern and southern regions.
The mid 18th century began the period of Zemene Mesafent – ‘years of the nobles’ or ‘the age of the princes’. Powerful princes and nobles ruled provinces and feuded with each other for supremacy. The most powerful among them made and unmade kings at will. The majority of the population, made up of peasants (farmers and herders), lived hard life not much different than that of indentured servants. They were at the will and whims of the nobility and their soldiers (Kebbede 1992, Zewde 2001).
While the nobles fought amongst themselves and the priests engaged in over-refined theological disputes, the social order was sustained by the peasantry, practically the only productive class in society. Through a combination of a long-established plough agriculture and animal husbandry, the peasant supported the whole social edifice. Thanks to lineage system of land-ownership known as rést, the peasant could claim a plot of land as long as he could trace his descent. But his control over his produce and his labour time was limited by the claims of the nobility, both lay and clerical (Zewde, 2001).
Beside the climatic calamities, the peasants were at the mercy of warring nobles and their soldiers who went on raids to fill their coffers. Feeding soldiers and nobles, paying tax and tribute left the poor and overworked peasant with nothing but enough for the next season’s planting.
Outside interventions came from the neighboring Egypt and Sudan. Under British rule, Egypt has warred with Ethiopia disrupting the country’s economy. Guised as a solicitation of Ethiopian’s assistance with the imperiled Egyptian troops; Britain signed a peace treaty with Ethiopia in 1884. In 1885, three month after ratifying the treaty, the British entrusted Massawa to the Italians (Zewde 2001, Pankhurst 1964). This turns out to be the catalyst for the turn Ethiopian history was about to take.
The Italians introduced the pivotal cause that made the drought to the Great Famine. While occupying Massawa, the Italians imported cattle from Asia. The cattle plague, known as rinderpest, which in the 1700’s devastated Europe was introduced to Ethiopia. According to Scott, European countries lost most of their cattle throughout the 18th century to rinderpest until in the 18th century, Pope Clement XI he instructed his physician, Dr. Lancisi, to prescribe measures for the suppression of the plague after high number cattle loss in the papal heard. According to Dr. Lancisi, the disease was contagious and he recommended slaughter and restricted movement of cattle. Scott goes one saying, “The penalties for transgressors were drastic; guilty laymen were hung, drawn and quartered and guilty ecclesiastics were sent to the galleys. The [Papal] edicts were not popular but their application rid Romagna of rinderpest. Elsewhere in Europe rinderpest was endemic being fanned frequently into point epidemics by a continuum of wars” (Scott, 2000).
The historical identification of the disease by Dr. Lancisi is supported today. The FAO of United Nations describes rinderpest and its side effects as follows:
Rinderpest is the most dreaded bovine plague -- a highly infectious viral disease that can destroy entire populations of cattle and buffalo. In regions that depend on cattle for meat, milk products and draft power, rinderpest has caused widespread famine and has inflicted serious economic and political damage. An epidemic in the 1890s wiped out 80-90 percent of all cattle in sub-Saharan Africa. More recently, another rinderpest outbreak that raged across much of Africa in 1982-84 is estimated to have cost at least $500 million. Rinderpest is mainly spread by direct contact and by drinking water that has been infected by the dung of sick animals. It can also be transmitted in the breath and can infect wild animals and pigs as well as cattle.
The rinderpest, which got a foothold through an Ethiopian seaport in 1887, decimated the cattle of northern Ethiopia and traveled to the rest of Ethiopia and the rest of Africa by 1897 (Pankhurst 1964, Zewde 2001). Like so many of the other droughts that Ethiopia has suffered, the country could have survived the drought of the late 1880’s at much lower loss of lives if it had not been for the rinderpest plague.
The Great Famine of the 1880’s is said to have lasted from 1888 to 1892. Rain failed and the hot weather burnt many acres of crop. The dry spell lasted for several years. Locust and caterpillars invaded the scene with unusually high number. The insects decimated what is left of the crop. The heavily populated farmlands of the northern regions were the first to suffer. With the Italians installed in the northern port city of Massawa, there was war between Ethiopia and Italy. The considerable number of soldiers concentrated in the north, contributed to the decline of available food supply. The overwork peasants were forced to feed the soldiers from the limited supply they had left after the failed crop season. Then came the effect of the rinderpest cattle plague. In reference to the plague, Pankhurst states:
The intensity of the outbreak may also have owed something to the fact asserted by some Roman Catholic missionaries of the time, that the weather was unusually hot which may in some way have adversely affected the balance of nature. At all events the rinderpest of 1888, which was very probably of a variety then little known in the country, appeared with unusual virulence and spread like wildfire soon affecting almost all parts of Ethiopia as well as much of the neighbouring Somali country to the south…. Livestock mortality undoubtedly reached immense proportions. An Italian eye-witness, Capucci, estimated that 90% of the cattle of Ethiopia perished, while Skinner the first United States envoy to Ethiopia, later quoted the view that not more than 7 or 8% were spared (Pankhurst, 1964).
The loss of cattle, especially oxen that are used for plowing, brought agricultural activity to a halt, paralyzing and devastating the national economy by depleting capital (oxen and seed). The high number of cattle carcasses on the land created a fertile ground for unhygienic conditions and infectious diseases. Smallpox, typhus, cholera and influenza epidemic decimated the population (Pankhurst 1964, Degefu 1987, Zewde 2001). These diseases are all groups of infectious diseases caused by microorganisms and mostly associated with war and famine. The malnourished and overworked bodies of the peasants were unable to combat the combination of hunger and epidemic. According to Degefu, it is estimated that one third of the population perished from hunger and epidemic (Degefu, 1987). The unusually high number of animal carcasses and the human bodies brought vultures and the wild animals out of the forest. The weak had to fight hunger, illness, hyenas, lions, and leopards and found themselves at the losing end.
The drought that crippled the peasants also affected the nobilities. The price of food rose considerably and rapidly rendering food unattainable. The few that had the means to purchase found themselves unable to obtain as much as they wanted. Emperor Menilek II ordered that those who were hording crops to bring it to market or lose all when he sends his soldiers. This mandate resulted in stabilizing the price of food. He opened his palace and started to feed masses of his hungry people. His practical generosities extended to serving the hungry as well as economize at the palace and go without the usual rich fares found in palaces. Unlike any emperor before and after him, he laboured in the fields among his people to encourage the use of hoe and tilled the dry soil (Zewde 2001, Pankhurst 1964). By following his example, the nobility participated in manual labor with the able bodied peasants and averted a complete decimation of the population. According to Pankhurst,
Almost the entire country seemed to have undergone a great transformation almost overnight. Antonelli, who had traveled between Harar and Addis Ababa in July 1888, and again in June 1889, was appalled by the change he encountered when he made the same journey in December 1890. “Previously”, he wrote in December 29, “the country was inhabited; there were very beautiful fields of durra and barley, numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats, and the whole area had atmosphere of abundance and prosperity.” The situation in 1890 was, however, entirely different. “At present” he wrote, “it is one continuous desolation. Except between Harar and Burka where there are still a few inhabitants and occasional areas of cultivation the reminder up to Menta Cara in Minjar is absolutely a desert; no more inhabitants, no more cultivation, no more flocks, but low acacias and tail grass rendering the beautiful valleys of Chercher and of the Ittu unrecognizable (Pankhurst, 1964).
For a country that kept chronicled history, by royal chroniclers and priests, rinderpest is not a commonly known factor among the current population. This could be attributed to the fact not many outside the church could read and write and therefore dependent on oral passing of history. The people in the northern region near Massawa could have known the existence and introduction of rinderpest and yet the knowledge did not trickle down to the rest of the country. The account of the oral history has attributed the cause of the drought to be the Will of God. This is supported by Emperor Menilek II’s mandate, who ordered the citizens to go and pray for divine intercession. He was displeased when there was no sign of improvement and declared that people were not praying hard enough and ordered them to go to church en masse and intensify their appeal to God.
Perhaps people in the north had more knowledge that the cattle plague was brought by the Italians. The speed in which rinderpest destroyed the cattle population did not leave any room for understanding the plague. In some areas, especially the north, it is believed that the disease was intentionally introduced by the Italians to aid them in their bid to conquer Ethiopia. In present day, many people have vivid memory of the recent war with the Italians, where the Italians are believed to have introduced many human diseases. The recent contact with the Italians plays a factor in coloring the accounting of the 1880’s history. Some areas attribute the destruction of cattle to the drought. The common name for the epidemic that killed untold number of citizens is commonly known as tesibo literal translation is ‘that gets from one to another’ or ‘contagious.’ As a whole, if asked, an Ethiopian would respond that it was God’s will and that He delivered us, and that the Italians are responsible for invading the borders and sanctity of Ethiopia where they exacerbated situations to incredible proportions.