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Chapter 9-South America
Geography Matters...
South America is a land of beautiful natural wonders, including the vast Amazon rain forest. However, not all of South America is a lush jungle paradise. The region also includes snow-covered mountains and boasts the world’s driest place—the Atacama Desert.
South America is diverse in culture as well as in landscape. The people of this subregion reflect a unique blend of indigenous and colonial heritage, the result of centuries of migration, trade, and conquest.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION •How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The diverse landscapes of South America are very different from what we know in the United States. They have led to the people in South America developing very different lifestyles that are adapted to their physical environment.
Landforms
How has South America’s rugged landscape both attracted and isolated people?
The Isthmus of Panama connects North America to South America. The subregion of South America spans 4,700 miles (7,564 km) from north to south, passing through the Equator near its widest point of 3,300 miles (5,311 km). Like Central America and Mexico, the most characteristic of South America’s many landforms are its mountains. The Andes are the world’s longest mountain chain. Some peaks in the Andes rise more than 20,000 feet (6,096 m) above sea level. The Andes consist ofcordilleras, groups of several mountain ranges that run parallel to one another. Although known by different names, they are an extension of the Rocky Mountains that run from Canada south through the western United States and into Mexico and Central America. Because the cordilleras have established natural barriers between surrounding areas, many indigenous communities developed as isolated groups. As a result, some mountain villages exhibit centuries-old social customs.
The Andes encircle thealtiplano, which means “high plain.” The altiplano is an area that includes southeastern Peru and western Bolivia. It is the second-largest mountain plateau in the world.
In southern Argentina, hills and flatlands form the plateau of Patagonia. The presence of the Andes to the west produces a rain shadow that causes Patagonia to be dry, barren, and windy. The Patagonian region also extends across the Andes to southern Chile. Patagonia boasts dramatic valleys, glaciers, and fjords. The rugged Andes and Patagonia’s landscape are a result of its location along the Ring of Fire.
Heavy tectonic activity in the subregion changes and reshapes the landscape. But despite the threats of natural disasters, people have chosen to settle in the Andean highlands for thousands of years. The climates are cooler, the volcanic soil is good for agriculture, and natural resources are concentrated here.
In contrast to the high peaks of the western Andes, eastern South America is defined by broad plateaus and valleys. The Amazon Basin, located along the eastern base of the Andes, is the lowlands area drained by the Amazon River. Just south is the Mato Grosso Plateau, a sparsely populated plateau of forests and grasslands extending across Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru. Farther east are the Brazilian Highlands, a vast area spanning several climate and vegetation zones. Warm climates and open spaces make the Brazilian Highlands good for raising livestock. The Eastern Highlands plunge to the Atlantic Ocean, forming a steep slope called anescarpment. This escarpment presents obstacles for inland development. As a result, most of Brazil’s population lives along the coast.
Narrow coastal lowlands hem the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America. South America’s inland grasslands—thellanos (LAH•nohs) of Colombia and Venezuela and thepampasof Argentina and Uruguay—provide grazing for cattle. Ranchers on large estates employ cowhands, calledllanerosor gauchos, to drive herds across the rolling plains. Known for its fertile soil, the pampas are one of the world’s breadbaskets, producing wheat and corn.
ExplainingWhat features of South America’s landscape have hindered or encouraged development?
Water Systems
How are South America’s rivers important for economic development?
Waterways are important for the subregion’s economic development because they provide ways to transport goods and people within and between the countries of South America. As the Western Hemisphere’s longest river and the world’s second longest, the Amazon River flows about 4,000 miles (6,400 km) through the heart of South America. It begins in the headwaters of the Peruvian Andes, flows across the lowlands of the Amazon Basin in the interior of Brazil, and drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Hundreds of smaller rivers join the Amazon as it flows from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean. Together these rivers form the Amazon Basin. The basin drains an area of more than 2 million square miles (5.2 million sq. km).
The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay Rivers form the second-largest river system in Latin America, draining the rainy eastern half of South America. These rivers flow through the Pantanal, one of the world’s largest tropical wetlands. After coursing through inland areas, the rivers flow into a broad estuary where the ocean tide meets a river current. This estuary, the Río de la Plata, or “River of Silver,” flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
Though Latin America has few large lakes, some of its largest lakes are located in South America. Lake Maracaibo (mah•rah•KY•boh) in Venezuela and Lake Titicaca (tee•tee•KAH•kah), which run through Bolivia and Peru, are South America’s largest lakes. Lake Titicaca is also the world’s highest large lake.
IdentifyingWhich rivers drain the eastern part of South America?
Climate, Biomes, and Resources
How does climate affect human activities in South America?
Diverse climates make South America a region of astonishing contrasts. Steamy rain forests, arid deserts, grassy plains, and sandy beaches can all be found in the subregion. The dense, nearly impenetrable vegetation of South America’s tropical rain forests represents a tremendous resource and supports many communities.
Climate Regions and Biomes
The vertical climate zones found in the highland areas of Central America and Mexico also exist in the highlands of South America. The Andes are distinct not only because of their dramatic height, but also because they have such cold climates despite their proximity to the otherwise tropical equatorial zone. The range in elevation has produced a wide variety of climate and ecological zones.
The temperate climate of thetierratempladais found in areas of Peru, Brazil, and Colombia. Many Andean communities are located in thetierrafría. People in the highlands subsist on potato, barley, and quinoa crops that grow well in this colder climate. South America’s colonial cities in Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia were developed over historical indigenous cities at high altitudes to extract valuable mineral resources found in the Andes. Consequently, several South American capitals are located in thetierrafríazone. Thetierraheladaand thepuna, the highest vertical climate zones located above the tree line, are zones of permanent snow and ice on the peaks of the Andes.
The El Niñophenomenonalso affects climate in South America. El Niño creates unusually warm ocean conditions on the west coast that extend as far north as Ecuador and as far south as Chile. As in Central America and the Caribbean, El Niño can have negative effects on coastal weather, fishing, and agriculture.
Tropical wet (rain forest) and tropical wet/dry (savanna) are thepredominantclimates of eastern South America, which is home to the Amazon rain forest, the world’s largest rain forest. It is located primarily in Brazil but also extends into Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. The Amazon shelters more species of plants and animals per square mile than anywhere else on Earth. It covers one-third of South America and is the world’s wettest tropical plain. Heavy rains drench the densely forested lowlands.
A tropical wet/dry climate is typical of north-central South America. These areas have high temperatures and abundant rainfall, but also experience an extended dry season. In many tropical wet/dry areas, grasslands flourish. Some of these grasslands, such as the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, are covered with scattered trees and are considered transition zones between grasslands and forests. A humid subtropical climate exists in much of southeastern South America. Winters here are short with cool to mild temperatures. Summers are long, hot, and humid. Rainfall is generally uniform throughout the year, but it can be heavier during the summer.
Much of the inland parts of Peru, Bolivia, and Chile experience an arid climate. In these areas, cold air and high elevations result in very little precipitation. Shifting winds and the rain shadow effect of the Andes produce aridity in the southeastern part of Argentina. The low vegetation here is adapted to the low moisture conditions. The cold, oceanic Peru Current creates dry coastal deserts along the Pacific coast of Chile and Peru. These desert areas are called the Atacama. It is so arid that in some places no rainfall has ever been recorded. A dense fog known ascamanchacais the only appreciable source of precipitation.
Natural Resources
South American countries are among the world’s leading producers of energy resources. Energy resources have supported major growth in economies such as that of Venezuela, which holds most of the subregion’s oil reserves. Because of South America’s substantial natural resources and active tectonic plates that allow for oil extraction, countries continue to search for additional, yet untapped oil reserves.
South America also has an abundance of mineral resources. For example, the foothills along Venezuela’s Orinoco River contain large amounts of gold, and Peru is known for silver. Mines in Colombia have been producing the world’s finest emeralds for more than 1,000 years. South America’s non-precious minerals also have significant economic value. Chile is the world’s largest exporter of copper. Peru and Chile together hold almost one-fourth of the world’s known copper reserves.
Countries in South America do not have equal access to the continent’s natural resources. The size of Venezuela’s oil reserves in comparison to the rest of the subregion’s countries is a clear example of this unbalanced distribution of energy resources. The physical geography within and surrounding each country largely dictates its access to natural resources. Alongside political borders dictated by physical geography, distribution of natural resources within South America was a decisive factor in defining countries’ political borders. Extraction of resources also relates to a country’s infrastructure, level of economic development, and relationships between people and their government. Countries with low capital, social and political divisions, and lack of advanced technology for extracting resources have been at a disadvantage in comparison to countries that can cope with such factors.
IdentifyingName three predominant climates in South America and describe their locations.
LESSON 2-Human Geography of South America
ESSENTIAL QUESTION •How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The society and governments of South America have been shaped by the subregion’s rich history of indigenous peoples and their interactions with Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The modern economic geography—based on agricultural practices, the continent’s natural resources, and industrial development—has resulted in an imbalance in overall wealth and development.
History and Government
How have indigenous peoples and Europeans contributed to the creation of modern governments in South America?
South America’s diverse population is the result of centuries of blending among hundreds of indigenous groups, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Some areas in South America are a microcosm of these diverse cultures. In other areas—many of them remote and isolated—indigenous peoples live much as their ancestors did hundreds of years ago, virtually untouched by the influence of other cultures or modern technology.
Early Cultures and European Conquest
Before the Inca established their empire in the Andes, other early indigenous groups—such as the Moche, Mapuche, and Aymara—developed societies that were based primarily on agriculture. The Inca later established a highly developed civilization in the area. At its height, the Inca Empire stretched from present-day Ecuador to central Chile.
The Inca were skilled engineers. They built temples and fortresses and laid out a network of roads that crossed mountain passes and penetrated forests. Inca farmers cut terraces into the slopes of the Andes and built irrigation systems. Machu Picchu, Peru’s most well-known archaeological site, is a grand display of Inca engineering that is remarkably preserved. With no Inca written language, knowledge was passed on to each generation through storytelling. The Inca usedquipus(KEE•poos) to account for financial and historical records.
Silver and gold were important resources in the Inca culture. The precious metals and the wealth of farmers of the Inca Empire attracted Spanish conquistadors to Peru. After defeating the Inca army and its rulers, they looted the empire’s capital and network of cities. The Inca connected their vast empire with a network of roads that extended throughout the empire. This allowed the Spanish conquerors to move quickly through the region. Spanish conquistadors expanded into Colombia, Argentina, and Chile. The Portuguese settled on the coast of Brazil, and the British, French, and Dutch later settled in parts of northern South America. The effects of epidemics caused by diseases introduced by the Europeans and the hardships of intensive labor on colonial plantations drastically reduced indigenous populations. To meet the resulting labor shortage, European colonists imported enslaved Africans.
Independence and Movements for Change
In the 1800s, independence movements arose in South America. These were inspired by the French and American Revolutions, as well as by the struggles for independence in Mexico and the Caribbean. By the mid-1800s, led by revolutionaries such as Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and José de San Martín of Argentina, most South American countries had won independence.
The postcolonial period was politically and economically unstable for most of the newly independent countries. They lacked a tradition of self-government. Power remained in the hands of the wealthy and elite classes of residents, despite written constitutions. With military backing, caudillos, or dictators, throughout South America seized power in the nineteenth century. Caudillos often gained power illegally and with much bloodshed among civilians.
Dictatorships have given way to democratically elected governments across South America. Today, however, these countries are struggling with many issues. These include political corruption and violence, wide gaps between the rich and poor, unemployment, and protecting the rights of indigenous groups.
IdentifyingWhat early indigenous civilization dominated much of western South America?
Population Patterns
How has South America’s physical geography influenced its population patterns?
South America is the world’s fourth-largest continent. The continent’s 12 countries are home to nearly 400 million people. Like much of the rest of the developing world, population growth is steady, and so is the migration of people into large, urban areas.
South America’s once high rate of population growth is beginning to slow. Urban populations now include fewer children as well as women and men with increased levels of education. Most people live on or near the coasts and along major rivers of the continent. These coastal regions offer favorable climates, fertile land, and access to transportation. The rain forests, deserts, and mountainous areas of South America's interior have discouraged human settlement.
South American countries tend to have low population densities. Ecuador, the most densely populated country in South America, has an average of 132 people per square mile (51 people per sq. km). Brazil has a population of nearly 200 million. However, because Brazil has about 3.2 million square miles (8.4 million sq. km), its average population density is about 60 people per square mile (23 people per sq. km). Despite population densities that are lower overall than other world regions, much of the economic and structural development is concentrated in major cities. Today about 80 percent of the subregion’s population lives in urban areas.
In highly populated urban areas such as São Paulo, Buenos Aires, and Bogotá, finding employment and suitable living conditions is difficult for migrants arriving in the city. Rural-to-urban migrants seek higher wages, better living conditions, and sometimes an escape from the violence of drug cartels or criminal groups. Countries across the region are experiencingbrain drainto North America and Europe as people search for a better life.