Essentials of Literary Analysis

Literary elements are features that are inherent in every work of narrative fiction, whether written or spoken orally. They are the necessary characteristics of any story, which readers generally use to discuss and to understand a work. Literary elements differ from literary devices or techniques, which are features used by an author that are not universal in every story, such as irony or foreshadowing. These are the most common literary elements:

Literary Elements

Character

A character is a person presented ina dramatic or narrative workwho engages the reader’s interest andempathy.

Types of characters: Astatic characterdoes notchange throughoutthe work, andthe reader’s knowledge ofthat character does not grow,whereas a dynamiccharacterundergoes some kindofchange because ofthe action inthe plot.Aflat characterembodies oneor two qualities,ideas,or traits thatcan be readily describedina briefsummary.Theyarenot psychologically complexcharacters andtherefore are readily accessible to readers.Some flatcharacters are recognized as stock characters; theyembodystereotypes such as the "dumbblonde" or the "meanstepfather."Theybecome types rather thanindividuals.Roundcharacters are more complexthanflator stockcharacters,andoften display the inconsistencies and internalconflictsfoundin most realpeople. Theyare more fullydeveloped, andtherefore are harder to summarize.

Functions of characters: A hero or heroine, often called the protagonist, is the central character who engages the reader’s interest and empathy. The antagonist is the character, force, or collection of forces that stands directly opposed to the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story. A first-person narrator may be either a major or minor character. A foil is a character who through contrast underscores the distinctive characteristics of another. Usually a minor character serves as a foil for a major character. A confidant/confidante is a character who is not integral to the action but who receives the intimate thoughts of the protagonist without the use of an omniscient narrator. A mentor is a character who serves as a guide for the protagonist.

Characterization

Characterization is the process by which a writer reveals the personality of a character, making that character seem real to the reader. Authors have two major methods of presenting characters: telling (direct characterization) and showing (indirect characterization). In direct characterization, the author intervenes to describe and sometimes evaluate the character for the reader. For example, the narrator may tell the reader directly what the character’s personality is like: humble, ambitious, vain, gullible, etc. Indirect characterization allows the author to present a character talking and acting, and lets the reader infer what kind of person the character is. There are five different ways that a writer may provide indirect characterization:

1.by describinghowthe characterlooks and dresses,

2.byallowingthe readerto hearthe characterspeak,

3.by revealingthe character’s private thoughts andfeelings,

4.by portraying the character’s effect on otherindividuals—showinghowother characters feelor behave towardthe character, and

5.by presenting the character’s actions.

Characters can be convincing whether they are presented byshowingor bytelling,as long as their actions are motivated. Motivatedaction by the characters occurs when the reader or audienceis offered reasons for howthe characters behave,whattheysay, and the decisions they make.Plausible actionis action byacharacterinastorythatseems reasonable,given themotivations presented.

Setting

The setting is the physicaland socialcontextinwhichthe actionofastoryoccurs.The major components ofsetting are the time,theplace, and the socialenvironmentthatframesthe characters.Settingcan be used to evoke amoodor atmosphere thatwillprepare thereader for whatis tocome.Specific components ofthe setting include:

  • the geographical location (its topography, scenery, and physical arrangements),
  • the occupations and daily manner of living of the characters,
  • the time period in which the action takes place (epoch in history or season of the year),
  • andthe general environment of the characters (social, religious, cultural, moral, and

emotional conditions and attitudes).

Plot

The structure and relationship of actions and events in a work of fiction. There is usually a catalyst that prompts the actions or events. Though most stories are told in chronological order, authors use techniques such as telling a story in medias res (in the middle of the action), through flashback, in episodicchapters,as a framed narrative, with magical realism, or with numerous subplots.

Some features of the plot that are evident in most works of short fiction (longer works are more complex and include more plotlines) and that you probably learned in first grade are exposition (introduces the characters, setting, and basic situations), rising action (the central conflict escalates as the situation becomes more complicated), climax (the high point of interest or emotional intensity when the conflict is about to be resolved, falling action (the part of the narrative after the conflict has been resolved; what the effects of the climax are), and resolution (the settling of conflict and complication; tying up loose ends). The engine that drives the plot is conflict.

Conflict

The conflictinawork of fictionisthe struggle withinthe plot between opposingforces—the issue to be resolvedinthe story.The protagonistengagesintheconflict withthe antagonist, which maytake the formofacharacter,society,nature,or an aspectofthe protagonist’s personality.Thus,conflict may be external,astruggle againstsome outside force, anothercharacter,societyas awhole,or some naturalforce; or internal,aconflict between forces or emotions withinone character.

Theme

Theme is the central meaningor dominant ideainaliterary work.A theme provides a unifyingpoint aroundwhichthe plot,adwhichthe plot,characters,setting,pointofview, symbols, andotherelements ofawork are organized.Itisimportantnotto mistakethe theme for thetopicofthe work; the theme expresses anopinionabout an abstractconcept(i.e.freedom, jealousy,guilt,unrequited love,self-pity). Theme should be writteninacomplexstatement: The[genre] [title] by [author] is about [topic/abstractconcept] andreveals that [opinion about human nature or the human condition].

Mood

The feeling or emotional reaction or response engendered in the reader as a result of the author’s skillful use of tone, theme, and diction.

Point of View

The point of view is the perspective from which the action of a work of fiction is presented, whether the action is presented by one character or from different vantage points over the course of the text.

These are common narrative perspectives:

The omniscient narrator is a third-person narrator who sees, like God, into each character’s mind and understands all the action going on.

The limited omniscient narrator is a third-person narrator who generally reports only what one character (often the protagonist) sees and who only reports the thoughts of that one privileged character.

The objective, or camera-eye, narrator is a third-person narrator who only reports what would be visible to a camera. The objective narrator does not know what the character is thinking unless the character speaks of it.

The first-person narrator, who is a major or minor character in the story, tells the tale from his or her point of view. When the first person narrator is insane, a liar, very young, or for some reason not entirely credible, the narrator is unreliable. Some first-person narratives include multiple narrators.

The stream of consciousness technique is like first-person narration, but instead of the character telling the story, the author places the reader inside the main character’s head and makes the reader privy to all of the character’s thoughts as they scroll through his or her consciousness.

Tone

The underlying attitude of an author or narrator created in a text through the selection of character, setting, incidents, and stylistic choices. Refer to the chart on the next page for an extensive tonal chart.

Literary Techniques/Devices

Literary techniques are too numerous to list here, but I will give you some categories and some links to definitions and more devices.

Syntax is the sentence structure, sentence variety, sentence arrangement, word order, parallelism, spelling, grammar conventions (or lack thereof), phrasing, punctuation, and repetition.

Diction is word choice with its denotation and connotation as well as concrete and abstract details.

Figurative Language relies on comparison and includes metaphor, simile, hyperbole, understatement, personification, synecdoche, metonymy, paradox, symbolism, and allusion.

Imagery—categorized as auditory, gustatory, kinetic, olfactory, organic, tactile, and visual--is often contrasted (light vs. dark, apathy vs. energy, sweet vs. sour) or repeated.

Organization is the structure or form, which can utilize contrast or similarity and be classified as formal, informal, logical, or chaotic.

Musicalitydescribes the sound of language—euphony, cacophony, or monotony.

Ironyis the contrast between what is said and what is true (verbal), what is expected and what happens (situational), and what a reader knows that a character does not (dramatic).

Foreshadowing is the hints or clues that an author uses to have the reader guessing or predicting the outcome of a piece. It may come through character dialogue, through the diction of the setting, or in the selectin of incidents.

Links to extensive lists of literary techniques/devices: