Style of Language

Stylistics

style of language

is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated and inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect (I.R.G)

See: <practical stylistic>, <stylistic device>, <expressive means>, <functional style>, <stylistic norm>, <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>, <lexical level>, <syntactical level>

stylistic device

SD

is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalised status and thus becoming a generative model (I.R.G.)

See: <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>; <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <expressive means>, <foregrounding>; <Stylistics>

expressive means

EMs

are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance (I.R.G.)

See: <stylistic device>; <Stylistics>

practical stylistic

the stylistics, proceeding form the norms of language usage at a given period and teaching these norms to language speakers, especially the ones, dealing with the language professionally (editors, publishers, writers, journalists, teachers, etc.). (V.A.K.)

See: <Stylistics>

stylistic norm

the invariant of the phonemic, morphological. lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time (I.R.G.)

See: <individual style>, <Stylistics>

individual style

a unique combination of language units, <expressive means> and <stylistic device>s peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer’s works or even utterances easily recognisable (I.R.G)

See: <stylistic norm>, <Stylistics>

sign

a material, sensuously perceived object (phenomenon, action) appearing in the process of cognition and communication in the capacity of a representative (substitute) of another object (or objects) and used for receiving, storing, recasting and transforming information about this object

See: <word>, <lexical SDs>, <Stylistics>

word

a unit of language functioning within the sentence or within a part of it which by its sound or graphical form expresses a concrete or abstract notion or a grammatical notion through one of its meanings and which is capable of enriching its semantic structure by acquiring new meanings and losing old ones (I.R.G.)

See: <sign>, <lexical SDs>, <Stylistics>

foregrounding

the ability of a verbal element to obtain extra significance, to say more in a definite context (Prague linguists)

See: <irony>, <epithet>, <stylistic device>

functional style

FS

a) a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim of communication

b) includes: <official style>, <scientific style>, <publicist style>, <newspaper style>, <belles-lettres style>

c) the co-ordination of the language means and <stylistic device>s which shapes the distinctive features of each style, and not the language means or SD themselves

d) a patterned variety of literary text characterised by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents, supra-phrasal units, in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport of the communication

See: <stylistic device>, <individual style>, <Stylistics>

Source: (I.R.G.)

official style(the) style of official documents

represented in all kinds of official documents and papers (V.A.K.)

The main aim is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking (the state and the citizen, citizen and citizen, the society and its members, two or more enterprises or bodies, a person and subordinates) (I.R.G.)

Substyles: the language of business documents, the language of legal documents, the language of diplomacy, the language of military documents

See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

scientific style

found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and academic publications (V.A.K.)

The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. (I.R.G)

See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

publicist style

covering such genres as essay, feature article, most writing of “new journalism”, public speeches, etc. (V.A.K.)

The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer of the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view … not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function). (I.R.G.)

Substyles: oratorical (direct contact with the listeners); radio commentary; essay (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in journals and magazines, pamphlets); articles (political, social, economic).

See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

newspaper style

1) observed in the majority of information materials printed in newspapers (V.A.K.)

2) a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. (I.R.G.)

See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

belles-lettres style

(the) style of imaginative literature

embracing numerous and versatile genres of imaginative writing (V.A.K.)

The purpose is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. (I.R.G.)

Substyles: the language of poetry (verse), emotive prose (fiction), the language of drama.

See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

phono-graphical level

includes: <onomatopoeia>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <graphon>

See: <morphological level>, <Stylistics>

morphological level

includes: <onomatopoeia>, <morphemic repetition>

See: <phono-graphical level>, <Stylistics>

(direct)onomatopoeia

1) the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object of action (V.A.K.)

2) a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc.) and by animals (I.R.G.)

e.g.: ”hiss”, “powwow”, “murmur”, “bump”, “grumble”, “sizzle”, “ding-dong”, “buzz”, “bang”, “cuckoo”, “tintinnabulation”, “mew”, “ping-pong”, “roar”

e.g.: Then with enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the station. (A.Saxton)

See: <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>

alliteration

the repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words (V.A.K.)

e.g.: ... silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (E.A.Poe)

e.g.: The furrow followed free. (S.T.Coleridge)

e.g.: The Italian trio tut-tuted their tongues at me. (T.Capote)

See: <phono-graphical level>

assonance

the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Nor soul helps flesh now // more than flesh helps soul (R.Browning)

e.g.: Dreadful young creatures – squealing and squawking.(D.Carter)

See: <phono-graphical level>

euphony

a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)

See: <onomatopoeia>, <alliteration>, <assonance>

cacophony

a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)

See: <onomatopoeia>, <alliteration>, <assonance>

graphon

1. Intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver. (Ch. Dickens ) – [lang id=2]с гашеткой впегеди для кучега.[/lang]

e.g.: You don’t mean to thay that thith ith your firth time. (D.Cusack)

2. All changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), s p a c i n g of graphemes, (hy-phe-na-ti-on, m-m-multiplication) and of lines. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: ”Alllll aboarrrrrrrd”.

e.g.: “Help. Help. HELP” (A.Huxley)

e.g.: ”grinning like a chim-pan-zee” (O’Connor)

e.g.: ”Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo // We haven’t enough to do-oo-oo. (R.Kipling)

See: <phono-graphical level>

morphemic repetition

repetition of a morpheme, both root and affixational, to emphasise and promote it (V.A.K.)

e.g.: They unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door. (A.Bennett)

e.g.: Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossi’s people brought him home in triumph. (H.Caine)

e.g.: Young Blight made another great show of changing the volume, taking up a pen, sucking it, sipping it, and running over previous entries before he wrote. As, “Mr. Alley, Mr. Balley, Mr. Calley, Mr. Dalley, Mr. Falley, Mr. Galley, Mr. Halley, Mr. Lalley, Mr. Malley. And Mr. Boffin. (Ch.Dickens)

See: <occasional words>, <morphological level>

occasional words

nonce-words

extension of the normative valency which results in the formation of new words. An effective way of using a morpheme for the creation of additional information. They are not neologisms in the true sense for they are created for special communicative situations only , and are not used beyond these occasions.(V.A.K.)

e.g.: I am an undersecretary of an underbureau. (I.Show)

e.g.: Parritt turns startledly. (E.O’Neill)

e.g.: That was masterly. Or should one say mistressly. (A.Huxley)

See: <morphemic repetition>

lexical level

word-stock

stratum of words

includes: <literary words>, <neutral words>, <colloquial words>

See: <phono-graphical level>, <syntactical level>; <Stylistics>

literary words

learned words

bookish words

high-flown words

a) serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, high poetry and poetic messages, authorial speech of creative prose;

b) mainly observed in the written form;

c) contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness.

e.g.: I must decline to pursue this painful discussion, It is not pleasant to my feelings; it is repugnant to my feelings. (Ch.Dickens)

See: <neutral words>, <colloquial words>; <special literary words>; <lexical level>

colloquial words

a) employed in non-official everyday communication

b) their use is associated with the oral form of communication

c) mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational

e.g.: ”dad”, “kid”, “crony”, “fan”, “to pop”, “folks”

d) include <special colloquial words>

e.g.: She’s engaged. Nice guy, too. Though there’s a slight difference in height. I’d say a foot, her favor. (T.Capote)

See: <literary words>, <neutral words>,

special colloquial words

<slang>, <jargonisms>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>

neutral words

the overwhelming majority of lexis (V.A.K)

See: <literary words>, <colloquial words>

special literary words

such <literary words> as <terms> and <archaisms> (V.A.K)

terms

<special literary words>, denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique (V.A.K)

archaisms

such <special literary words> as

a) historical words – denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use

e.g.: ”yeoman”, “vassal”, “falconet”

b) poetic words and highly literary words – used in poetry in the 17 – 19 cc.

e.g.: ”steed” - horse”, “quoth” - said, “woe” - sorrow, “eftsoons” - again, soon after, “rondure” - roundness

c) archaic words proper – in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymous words or forms;

e.g.: “to deem” = to think, “repast” = meal, - for “horse”, “quoth” for “said”, “woe” for “sorrow”; “maketh” = makes, “thou wilt” = you will, “brethren” = brothers, whereof, aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed

e.g.: If manners maketh man, then manner and grooming maketh poodle.(J.Steinbeck)

(general) slang

such <special colloquial words> which

a) used by most speakers in very and highly informal, substandard communication

b) are highly emotive and expressive and as such

d) lose their originality rather fast and

c) are replaced by newer formations, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups

e.g.: Now take fried, crocked, squiffed, loaded plastered, blotto, tiddled, soaked, boiled, stinko, viled, polluted”(K.Kesey)

e.g.: ”Do you talk?” asked Bundle. “or are you just strong and silent?” “Talk?” said Anthony. “I burble. I murmur. I gurgle – like a running brook, you know. Sometimes I even ask questions.” (A.Christie)

See: <jargonisms>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>

jargonisms

special slang

such <special colloquial words> which

a) stand close to <slang>, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang

b) are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (<professional jargonisms> or <professionalisms>) or socially (<jargonisms proper>)

c) cover a narrow semantic field, function and sphere of application

d) tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups

See: <slang>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>

professional jargonisms

professionalisms

such <jargonisms> which

a) connected with the technical side of some profession

e.g.: ”driller” = borer, digger, wrencher, hogger, brake weight

e.g.: ”pipeliner” = swabber, bender, cat, old cat, collar-pecker, hammerman

b) are formed according to the existing word-building patterns of present existing words in new meanings, and,

c) covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item

See: <slang>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>

vulgarisms

coarse <special colloquial words> with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation (V.A.K.)

e.g.: There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year.

See: <slang>, <jargonisms>, <dialectical words>

dialectical words

such <special colloquial words> which

a) are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong;

b) markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them;

c) differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general.

e.g.: ”son of a bitch”, “whore”, “whorehound”

e.g.: A hut was all the (= the only) home he ever had.

e.g.: Mary sitsaside (= beside) of her sister on the bus.

See: <slang>, <jargonisms>, <vulgarisms>

lexical stylistic devices

lexical SDs

include: <metaphor>, <personification>; <metonymy>, <synecdoche>; <cluster SDs>; play on words, <irony>, <epithet>, <hyperbole>, <understatement>, <oxymoron>

See: <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

transference

act of name-exchange, of substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things, for the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, function, etc.), or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole, etc.) (V.A.K.)

See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>

metaphor

<transference> of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures.

e.g.: ”pancake” for the “sun” (round, hot, yellow)

e.g.: ”silver dust” and “sequins” for “stars”

The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects – the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.

The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected – the more expressive – is the metaphor.

e.g.: His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S.Lewis)

e.g.: They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert)

See: <personification>, <simile>, <lexical SDs>

personification

a <metaphor> that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.K)

e.g.: ”the face of London”, “the pain of ocean”

e.g.: Geneva, mother of the Red Cross, hostess of humanitarian congresses for the civilizing of warfare. (J.Reed)

e.g.: Notre Dame squats in the dusk.(E.Hemingway)

See: <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>

sustained metaphor

prolonged metaphor

a group (cluster) of <metaphor>s, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image (V.A.K.)

metonymy

<transference> of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic.

e.g.: ”cup” and “tea” in “Will you have another cup?”

e.g.: ”My brass will call your brass” (A.Heiley)

e.g.: Dinah, a slim, fresh, pale eighteen, was pliant and yet fragile.(C.Holmes)

See: <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>

synecdoche

a <metonymy> based on the relations between the part and the whole (V.A.K.)

e.g.: He made his way through perfume and conversation. (I.Shaw)

e.g.: His mind was alert and people asked him to dinner not for old times’ sake, but because he was worth his salt.(S.Maugham)

See: <personification>, <lexical SDs>

cluster SDs

a small group (cluster) of SDs, which

a) operate on the same linguistic mechanism: namely, one word-form is deliberately used in two meanings;

b) have humorous effect, and

c) include: <pun> or <paronomasia>, <zeugma>, <violation of phraseological units>, <semantically false chains>, <nonsense of non-sequence>;

See: <lexical SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

pun

paronomasia

simultaneous realisation of two meanings through

a) misinterpretation of one speaker’s utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym

e.g.: ”Have you been seeing any spirits?” “Or taking any?” – added Bob Allen. (Ch.Dickens) [com](The first “spirit” refers to supernatural forces the second one – to strong drinks)[/com]

b) speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation

e.g.: There comes a period in every man’s life, but she is just a semicolon in his. (B.Evans) [com](a punctuation mark instead of an interval of time)[/com]

e.g.: There are two things I look for in a man. A sympathetic character and full lips.(I.Shaw)

See: <cluster SDs>

zeugma

a cluster SD, when a polysemantic verb that can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups is deliberately used with two of more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically (V.A.K.)

e.g.: He took his hat and his leave. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair. (Ch.Dickens)

See: <semantically false chains>, <cluster SDs>

semantically false chains

a variation of <zeugma> when the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases (V.A.K.)

e.g.: A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Roumanian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering. (S.Leacock)