A3: The Making of Nation States: Uniting Italy and Germany:
Italy 1852-70
What did Cavour do for Piedmont?
Cavour began to introduce modern farming methods on his estates in the 1840s and also encouraged the development of banking and railways. He supported the creation of a Piedmontese constitution, which the king granted in 1848. In 1850 he was the author of a Bill which reduced the power of the Catholic Church and abolished the Church courts.
In 1850 Cavour became a government minister for agriculture and commerce, but later also for the navy and finance. He raised taxes to build more railways. He arranged treaties with Austria, Britain and France and invited foreign banks to invest money in Piedmont.
In which changes was Cavour interested? Tick the column on the right.
The reform of the legal systemThe foundation of an Italian republic
The reduction of the power of the Catholic Church
Cutting Piedmont off from outside influence
Introduction of modern farming methods
Foreign investment in Piedmont
The development of a modern banking system
The preservation of traditional agriculture
The development of a railway network
The introduction of constitutional government
Now use the information in the table to describe how Cavour wanted to change Piedmont.
Social changes
______
Economic changes
______
In 1852 Cavour became the Prime Minister of Piedmont. His main aim was to make Piedmont a strong, modern country and he largely succeeded. In 1848-9 there had been a revolt against the Austrian in Venice. Piedmont had declared war on the Austrians and had tried to drive them out of Italy, but the Piedmontese army had been disastrously defeated. It was obvious that if Italy was to be rid of the Austrians, Piedmont would need foreign help.
How did Cavour defeat Austria?
Cavour offered to support Britain and France in the Crimean War. The Piedmontese did not do very much and the British and French did not offer much in return. But Cavour’s speech at the peace conference in Paris was reported in French newspapers. He received a good deal of attention and a great deal of sympathy.
Cavour offered to support France and Britain in the Crimean War because
He wanted to gain territory from RussiaHe hoped that Piedmont would receive international recognition
He believed that France and Britain were justified in attacking Russia
He wanted French support against Austria
He believed that the Piedmontese army would have a dramatic effect
He was a great admirer of the British army
In January 1858 an Italian called Orsini tried to assassinate Napoleon III, the Emperor of France. Cavour went out of his way to round up anyone who could have been involved in the plot. Napoleon III decided that he ought to help and invited Cavour to meet him in July. Cavour travelled in disguise, so that the meeting could be kept secret.
Napoleon offered to help Piedmont against Austria, providing that Cavour could come up with a good reason for French intervention. Piedmont would find a way of provoking the Austrians, France would intervene and would then receive Savoy and Nice in return for its troubles.
In March 1859 all Piedmontese army reserves were ordered to report for duty. The Austrians ordered Piedmont to stand down its army. Cavour rejected the ultimatum and the Austrians invaded Piedmont. French forces were sent to support the Piedmontese army and won two victories at Magenta and Solferino. The second battle was so bloody that Napoleon was horrified at the loss of life and decided to seek an armistice.
When news of the war had spread, the people in the Austrian duchies had driven out their rulers. Napoleon was concerned and met the Austrian emperor at Villafranca in July 1859. Lombardy was handed over, but Venetia would remain Austrian. In the duchies, the Austrian rulers would be reinstated. But when the rulers of the duchies tried to return in August and September 1859, they were rejected and all four duchies voted to be united with Piedmont. Cavour managed to persuade Napoleon to accept the decisions. Napoleon agreed, but demanded Nice and Savoy as a reward.
Was the Pact of Plombieres a success for Cavour?
Yes / No1:
2:
3:
4: / 1:
2:
3:
4:
Draw up a timeline of events in 1858-9. Where there are no dates you must decide what is to be included.
Date / Event / ImportanceJanuary 1858
July 1858March 1859
July 1859
Aug-Sept 1859
By the end of 1859 Cavour would have been satisfied because
/ By the end of 1859 Cavour would have been angry because1:
2:
3:
4:
5: / 1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
How did Garibaldi become involved?
In April 1860 there was a revolt against the king of Naples in Sicily. In Piedmont, Garibaldi decided to go to the support of the people of Naples. Garibaldi had planning to march to Nice to defend it against the French when he heard of the revolt in Sicily. Cavour almost certainly knew what was going on and did very little to stop Garibaldi sailing for Sicily. He was quite happy to take advantage of Garibaldi. Garibaldi set off with The Thousand who were all volunteers.
Garibaldi soon defeated the king’s forces and by the end of July he had driven them out of Sicily. In August he decided to follow them onto the Italian mainland. Within two weeks Garibaldi’s men had taken the city of Naples and the king fled. He now planned to march north, take control of the Papal States and then possibly attack the Austrians in Venetia.
Why did Garibaldi invade Sicily?
Tick the correct answers
Garibaldi wanted to stop Sicily being given to FranceGaribaldi had an army ready for action
There was a revolt in Sicily
Garibaldi wanted to establish a Kingdom of Italy
Garibaldi wanted to force Cavour to annex Sicily
Garibaldi wanted to embarrass Cavour
Sicily had been invaded by the King of Naples
Garibaldi wanted to set up a republic in Sicily
Why did Cavour intervene?
Cavour knew that Garibaldi was loyal to the kingdom of Piedmont and so had not been concerned when he overran Sicily and Naples. But if Garibaldi attacked Rome, the French would almost certainly intervene. In September 1860, Cavour ordered the Piedmontese army to invade the Papal States and march south to meet Garibaldi.
Garibaldi was quite happy, however, to hand over all of his conquests to Victor Emmanuel, the king of Piedmont. Most of the Papal States broke away from the Pope and voted for union with Piedmont. Naples and Sicily did the same. The kingdom of Piedmont was more than twice as big than it had been at the beginning of the year. Victor Emmanuel became the first King of Italy.
Complete these paragraphs
Cavour would have been pleased with Garibaldi’s actions because ______
Cavour would have been angry at Garibaldi’s actions because
______
Which of these statements about Garibaldi are true?
True / FalseGaribaldi wanted to set up an Italian Republic
Garibaldi was loyal to King Victor Emmanuel
Garibaldi opposed the cession of Nice and Savoy to France
Garibaldi refused to accept the authority of Cavour
Garibaldi had taken part in the 1848 revolution
Garibaldi fought in the Piedmontese Army
Garibaldi was not born in Italy
Garibaldi refused to hand over Naples to Cavour
Garibaldi did not recognise Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy
Garibaldi co-operated with Cavour against the Papal States
How did Venice and Rome become part of Italy?
In May 1866 Italy signed a treaty with Prussia. The following month the Prussians declared war on Austria. The Austrians wanted to keep the French out of the war and so they agreed to hand over Venetia whatever happened in the war. The Italians also declared war on Austria in support of Prussia. The Prussian army defeated the Austrian very easily, but the Italians were defeated in battles on land and at sea. Nevertheless, the Austrians had to hand over Venetia and it became part of Italy. Now only Rome was left.
In 1870 France declared war on Prussia and the French troops were withdrawn from Rome. After a short battle, the city was occupied by the Italian army and became part of Italy in October. It was immediately proclaimed the capital. Italy was now a united country for the first time since the Roman Empire.
Match up the parts of Italy with the ways that they became united
1 / Lombardy / They were ceded after popular risings and votes to reject their rulers. Napoleon III agreed under pressure from Cavour.2 / The Duchies / This was ceded in 1866 after the Austrian defeat in the war with Prussia. Bismarck had agreed that it would be handed over.
3 / Sicily / This was occupied by Piedmontese forces in 1870 when French troops were withdrawn during the Franco-Prussian War
4 / Naples / This was occupied after the battles of Solferino and Magenta and the cession was agreed at the Treaty of Villafranca.
5 / Papal States / This was invaded by Garibaldi after an uprising against the king. He was able to defeat the royal army
6 / Venetia / They were invaded by Garibaldi and the Piedmontese army. They were quickly overrun and voted to become part of Italy.
7 / Rome / Garibaldi invaded under the protection of the Royal Navy. He quickly defeated the royal forces and then marched north.
Germany 1862-90
What was realpolitik?
In 1862 the Prussia government had put forward plans to reform the army. But they had run into trouble. The opposition in the Prussian parliament had blocked the taxes that would be needed to pay for the changes. Bismarck’s solution to the problem was to try to arrange a compromise. But when the opposition refused to reach an agreement, he decided to suspend parliament and go ahead and collect the taxes anyway.
This action was an example of what has become known as ‘realpolitik’. This is a difficult word to translate. It is probably best explained as ‘the end justifies the means’. Bismarck believed that all Prussians should be prepared to make sacrifices for the good of their country. He was determined to make Prussia a powerful and united country. Even more important was the way that Bismarck tried to force France to declare war in July 1870.
In July 1870, Bismarck was sent a telegram by King Wilhelm telling him about a meeting with the French ambassador. Bismarck deliberately changed the wording of the telegram so that it appeared that the king had insulted the ambassador. He then published the telegram in Prussian newspapers. In France people were furious and the government was almost forced to declare war on Prussia by the national press.
Why was Bismarck appointed Minister-President of Prussia in 1862? Tick the correct reasons.
Bismarck had a reputation for being outspokenBismarck was an experienced minister in the Prussian government
The Prussian parliament had refused to increase taxes
Bismarck was completely loyal to the Prussian crown
The Prussian parliament had demanded the resignation of the government
Bismarck was prepared to override opposition
The army reforms had run into opposition
Which of these are correct explanations of realpolitik?
Breaking the law can be justified if it produces the right resultsMinisters should act in the best interests of their country
People can be arrested and executed without trial
The state is more important than individual people
The government can do whatever it likes
Results are more important than the way that they are achieved
Political success is more important than good behaviour
The government can act illegally in times of crisis
Now complete these paragraphs
Bismarck’s handling of the army reforms was an example of realpolitik because
______
The Ems telegram was an example of realpolitik because
______
The creation of the German Empire
The Zollverein was set up in 1834 and eighteen states joined. Seven more states had joined by the early 1850s. Most of these states were in northern Germany. The Zollverein was simply an area in which goods could be traded without any customs duties. By the 1860s the Zollverein was so important that Austria tried to join, but Bismarck would not allow it.
Choose the correct statements about the Zollverein
True / FalseAt first the Zollverein was mostly made up of states in northern Germany
The Zollverein included Austria
Although the Zollverein was economic at first, it became political
The Zollverein became more important that the German Confederation
The members of the Zollverein had to follow orders from Prussia
The Zollverein linked states in Germany to Prussia
The failure to join the Zollverein left Austria isolated
Austria never wanted to join the Zollverein
The Zollverein brought German people closer together
The Zollverein had no political clauses
After the wars against Denmark and Austria, only four southern states remained independent, but they all joined the German Empire when it was announced in January 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War.
What part did Bismarck play?
The German Empire was created by Bismarck. He persuaded all of the rulers of the German states to accept King Wilhelm as the Emperor. He also designed the way in which the Empire was to be run.
How was the German Empire organised?
Use the information below to complete the table on the next page. Fill in the boxes explaining the powers of each organisation.
The Empire could only raise income through indirect taxation, such as a sales tax.
The German Empire had a parliament, the Reichstag, which was elected on universal suffrage.
The Reichstag had to pass laws put forward by the Chancellor.
Bismarck soon realised that it was more important to be Minister-President of Prussia, than it was to be Chancellor of Germany.
Prussia supplied the army and much of the finance. Bismarck also made sure that as many as possible of the senior officials in the Imperial government were Prussian.
In practice it was Prussia that really counted. Each state retained control over education, justice, agriculture, direct taxation and local government.
Imperial ministers did not have to do what the Reichstag wanted and the Reichstag could not propose laws.
Bismarck became Chancellor of the German Empire, but also remained Minister-President of Prussia.
How was the German Empire organised?
Imperial government / State governmentsImperial government / Reichstag
Imperial government /
Prussia
Describe three ways in which Bismarck tried to control the Empire
12
3
Why did Bismarck come into conflict with the Catholics?
From 1871 almost 40 percent of the people of the Empire were Catholics. Universal suffrage allowed Catholic voters to create the Centre Party. Bismarck tried to get the Catholic Church to withdraw support from the Centre Party, but when it refused, he decided to try to limit the influence of the Church. Bismarck was not really being anti-Catholic. He wanted to make sure that the Empire survived. He was prepared to take action against any groups that were attacking it.
List three reasons why Bismarck Catholics became important in the German Empire after 1871.
12
3
How did Bismarck attempt to limit the power of the Catholic Church?
At first all schools in Prussia were removed from the control of churches placed under the supervision of the state. In 1872 the Reichstag banned the Jesuits from setting up any institutions in the Empire.
In 1873 the Prussian parliament passed the May Laws. Men who wanted to become priests to attend university for three years before they began their training. All church appointments could be vetoed by the state.
In 1874 Prussia introduced civil marriage. In 1875 these laws were extended to all of the other German states. In 1875, the Prussian government began to stop paying subsidies to the Church where the new laws were ignored. The laws were opposed by Catholics all over Germany.
But Bismarck soon needed support in efforts to sort out problems in the German economy. In 1879, when Bismarck did a deal with the Pope and the Church. The controls on the clergy and loss of subsidies were abolished, but civil marriage and the ban on the Jesuits were retained.
Draw up a timeline for Bismarck’s attacks on the Catholic Church
Complete the table using the information from the previous page and your own knowledge.
Date / Changes / Importance for CatholicsCatholics would not have been able to choose how their children were going to be educated
The Jesuits were banned from the German Empire
Men training to be priests would not just be educated by the Church. The Empire would be able to control appointments in the Church.
1874
This reduced the authority of the Church because marriage became a civil ceremony
Subsidies to the Church were withdrawn if laws were not observed.
How did Bismarck deal with the Liberals?