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AHS EARTH SCIENCE End of Year Exit Exam Study Notes
1. List all the accomplishments that Galileo was famous for discovering or investigating.
Father of the scientific method, discovered Moons of Jupiter, differing masses drop at same speed, projectile motion, parabolic motions
2. Explain Newton’s 3 Laws of Motion with examples.
Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
A ball moves through space until it hits something.
The relationship between an object's massm, its accelerationa, and the applied forceFisF= ma.The larger the object for a given speed, the more the force.
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
A rocket gases move in one direction, the rocket in the opposite.
3. Illustrate how we used the three types ofvariables(experimental, responding and controlled) in any lab this year, such as the storm the castle lab, radar lab, etc.
4. Describe the subatomic particles that make up atoms.
protons –Positive charge, two up quarks, one down, protons are found in nuclei of atoms.
Electrons-Negative charge, neutrons are found in the orbits/shells/clouds of atoms.
neutrons –Neutral particles formed from two down quarks, one up
5. Order the building blocks of our universe in order from smallest to largest.
quark, electron, proton, neutron, atom, molecule, mineral, rock, planet, star, galaxy, universe.
6. Explain the term “Groups” as it applies to the periodic table.
Groups are chemical families that have the same chemical
properties, because they all have the same number of
valence (outer shell) electrons.
7. Describe what the periods of the periodic table tells one about atoms.
Elements are placed in periods due to the number of electron shells surrounding the nuclei of atoms.
8. Define molecules...give an example or two. Molecules are atoms that share valence electrons binding the atoms together. Examples of molecules would be: Water, H2O Nitrogen, N2 Oxygen O2 and Carbon Dioxide, CO2 Methane, CH4
9. Explain howmolecules such as silica dioxide combine to make minerals.
Molecules are groups of atoms that share valence (outer shell) electrons.
Examples would be greenhouse gases like Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (Ch4)
10. Describe the physical properties use to classify all minerals.
Color: very variable, complex causes
Hardness: strength of atomic bonds
Density: mass and spacing of atoms
Luster: how electrons interact with light
Cleavage: weak atomic planes
Crystal Form: extremely useful but not for beginners
Other properties distinctive at times
Rocks and Minerals
10. Identify common rock-forming minerals. Feldspar, Biotite, Hornblende, Quartz
11. Identify common igneous rocks. Granite, Basalt, Pumice
12. Identify common metamorphic rocks. Gneiss, Schist, Marble, Quartzite
13. Identify common sedimentary rocks. Limestone, Sandstone,
Advanced Rock Cycle
Describe igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
Igneous Rockis formed when magma cools underground and crystallizes or when it erupts unto the surface of the ground, cools and crystallizes. Magma that erupts onto the surface is called lava. When magma cools slowly underground the crystals are large enough to see. When it cools quickly on the surface, the crystals are very small and you would need a magnifier or a microscope to see them. Sometimes, when the magma cools very quickly, it forms a kind of black glass that you cannot see through.
Sedimentary Rockforms from particles, called sediment, that are worn off other rocks. The particles are sand, silt, and clay. Sand has the largest particles while clay has the smallest. If there are a lot of pebbles mixed with the sand, it is called gravel. The sediment gets turned into rock by being buried and compacted by pressure from the weight above it. Another way it becomes rock is from being cemented together by material that has been dissolved in water. Often, both cementing and compaction take place together.
Clastic: your basic sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of clasts: little pieces of broken up rock which have piled up and been "lithified" (Turned to Rock) by compaction, heat pressure and cementation.
Chemical: many of these form when standing water evaporates, leaving dissolved minerals behind. These are very common in arid lands, where seasonal "playa lakes" occur in closed depressions. Thick deposits of salt and gypsum can form due to repeated flooding and evaporation overlong periods of time.
Organic: any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic processes. Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and teeth. These bits of calcium can pile up on the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough layers to form an "organic" sedimentary rock.
Metamorphic Rockis formed by great heat, or pressure, or both. The pressure can come from being buried very deep in the earth's crust, or from the huge plates of the earth's crust pushing against each other. The deeper below the surface of the earth, the higher the temperature, so deep burial also means high temperatures. Another way that high temperatures occur is when magma rises through the earth's upper crust. It is very hot and bakes the rock through which it moves. Hot liquids or gases from the magma also can cause chemical changes in the rock around the magma.Common metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, gneiss, and marble.
14. Using the rock cycle explain how igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks can change into each other. Rocks, like mountains, do not last forever. The weather, running water, and ice wear them down. All kinds of rocks become sediment. Sediment is sand, silt, or clay. As the sediment is buried it is compressed and material dissolved in water cements it together to make it into sedimentary rock. If a great amount of pressure is exerted on the sedimentary rock, or it is heated, it may turn into a metamorphic rock. If rocks are buried deep enough, they melt. When the rock material is molten, it is called magma. If the magma moves upward toward the surface it cools and crystallizes to form igneous rocks. This whole process is called theRock Cycle
15. Explain how the size and shape of grains in a sedimentary rock indicates how it formed.
Landforms are the result of a combination of constructive and destructive forces. Constructive forces includecrustal formation, volcanic eruptions, and deposition of sediments transported in rivers, streams, and lakes through watersheds. Destructive forces include weathering and erosion. The weathering of rocks and decomposed organic matter result in the formation of soils. The longer a rock has been moved by wind, water the less angular edges it has and the more well rounded it becomes.
16. Explain how the crystal sizes of igneous rocks indicate the rate of cooling and whether the rock is extrusive of intrusive. Large crystals represent slow cooling and small crystals represent fast cooling rates. Crystals need time to form and since extrusive rocks cool very quickly, they have very tiny crystals (smaller than a grain of sand) and some don't even have crystals because the rate of cooling was so fast that crystals didn't have time to form. On the other hand, intrusive rocks cool rather slowly allowing crystals large enough to see with the naked eye to grow.
17. Explain “contact metamorphism.” happens when hot magma moves into rock, heating and changing it. The area affected is rarely wider than 100 meters. Contact metamorphism produces non-foliated (rocks without any cleavage) rocks such as marble, quartzite, and hornfels.
18. Describe the processes that change one kind of rock to another.
The Rock cycle was made by James Hutton (1726—1797), the 18th-century founder of modern geology. The main idea is that rocks are continually changing from one type to another and back again, as forces inside the earth bring them closer to the surface (where they are weathered, eroded, and compacted) and forces on the earth sink them back down (where they are heated, pressed, and melted). So the elements that make up rocks are never created or destroyed — instead, they are constantly being recycled. The earth is like a giant rock recycling machine! http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html
Landforms and Soils
19. Explain the origin of Michigan landforms (e.g.** moraines, gravel pits, kettle lakes).
The landforms of Michigan are a result of major changes brought about by continental glaciations. Glacial landforms dominate the surface of the whole state except the western half of the U.P., where eroded peaks of some of the oldest mountains on earth are found.
20. Explain how physical and chemical weathering leads to erosion and the formation of soils and sediments. Erosionis theweatheringand transport of solids (sediment,soil,rockand other particles) from their source and deposited elsewhere. It occurs due totransportby wind, water, or ice; by down-slope creepof soil and other material under the force ofgravity.
21. Describe how coastal features are formed by wave erosion and deposition.
Waves generally hit the beach at an angle, pushing sand and water up the beach at an angle. However, once on the beach, gravity pulls the water and sand straight down the beach face. This happens thousands of times a day, the water and sand move up the beach face at an angle, then flow straight down the beach, back up at an angle, then straight back down again. Thus the water and sand travels in sort of a zigzag pattern down the beach and near shore area. The movement of the sand is called beach drift and the movement of the water generates the long shore current. Large quantities of sand move along beaches and just offshore due to the action of long shore currents and long shore drift. Thus over time, a flow or stream of sand is continuously moving along the beach and parallel to the beach in the shallow, near shore waters.
Glaciers
22. Describe how glaciers have affected the Michigan landscape and our state economy.
As the ice melted, the sediments were deposited, creating huge landforms. Some sediment was deposited in large ridges and hills while others were carried away by vast amounts of melt water streaming from the melting ice sheets.11,000 inland lakes are water accumulating in depressions left by passing glaciers. The swamp land of Michigan was drained for agriculture. This accounted for the loss of 50% of Michigan’s wetlands. The flattest areas of southeast Michigan are plains that are the result of deposits on the bottom of ancient lakes. Detroit and the northwest suburbs used to be under an ancient lake!
23. Explain what happens to the lithosphere (crust) when an ice sheet is removed (glacial/ region rebound). Glacialisostasyis the process of lithospheric depression under the weight of an ice sheet and subsequent rebound when the ice mass is reduced or removed.
24. Explain the formation of the Great Lakes.
The Great Lakes were carved out from river valleys with each advance of the ice, they got wider & deeper. The depth of the lake is determined by the thickness of the ice at the time of glaciations. The farther north the lobe of ice, the thicker it was. Because of this, the lakes get shallower in the southern Great Lakes region. Superior =1,333 ft. Michigan = 925 ft. Huron = 725 ft. Ontario = 283 ft. Erie = 212 ft. The Great Lakes are 5 of the lakes in a 5,000-mile long string of lakes through central and western Canada.
Basic Plate Tectonics
Describe (geological) evidence that indicates Africa and South America were once part of a single continent. Identical chemical and radiological rock types on Africa and South America Wegner's continental drift ideas were based on; 1) the near perfect fit of these four continents if the Atlantic Ocean were closed, 2) Evidence for a common glaciations in the southern continents (South America, Africa, and Antarctica), 3) Similarities in rocks and fossils on continents separated by the Atlantic ocean.
25. Describe the three types of plate boundaries and feature associated w/ them (Divergent mid-ocean ridges, hot spot volcanic and island arcs, Convergent or subduction deep-sea trenches, transform faults).
26. Describe the three major types of volcanoes. Cone, shield, strato or composite volcano
27. What is the significance of the Ring of Fire? The ring of fire marks the edge of subduction zones where earthquakes and volcanoes are common.
Interior of the Earth
28. Describe the interior of the Earth. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust.The next layer down is the mantle; this is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.
29. Explain how and where the magnetic field of the Earth is generated. The magnetic field appears to come from the rotating liquid metal outer core of the earth.
30. Explain how scientists infer that the Earth has interior layers, like a liquid outer core, by using primary (P) and secondary (S) seismic waves. P waveorprimary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and is the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. S waveorsecondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid.
31. Describe the differences between oceanic and continental crust. Ocean crust is made from basalt that has a density of 3.0 g/cm3 and Continental crust that has a density of 2.7 g/cm3
32. Explain the uncertainties associated with models of the interior of the Earth. The temperatures and heat of the interior of the earth will keep us from exploring the core for the foreseeable future. The only way to explore is by measuring the different speeds in seismic or earthquake waves.
Plate Tectonics Theory
33. Explain how plate tectonics accounts for sea floor spreading, mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones, earthquakes and volcanoes, & mountain ranges. Convection of molten rock moves less continental plates around the surface of the earth, creating gaps such as where the plates spread apart (sea floor spreading, mid-ocean ridges) or where plates crash together and more dense plates are forced back into the mantle.(Subduction Zones/ Mountain ranges)or hot spots where mantle plumes burn through the crustal plates.