Online Resource to Accompany
A Guidance Approach
for the
Encouraging Classroom
Third Edition
Dan Gartrell
PART ONE
FOUNDATIONS OF A GUIDANCE APPROACH
Chapter One The Guidance Tradition
Chapter Two Child Development and Guidance
Chapter Three Mistaken Behavior
Chapter Four Guidance: The Bottom Line
Chapter One
The Guidance Tradition
I. Pioneers of the Guidance Tradition
A. Friedrich Froebel
B. Maria Montessori
C. John Dewey
II. Mid-20th-Century Influences: The Developmental and Self-Psychologists
A. Jean Piaget
B. The Self-Psychologists
C. Rudolph Dreikurs
D. Haim Ginott
III. The 1980s: Guidance or Obedience-Based Discipline
A. The Push-Down of Academics
B. Assertive Discipline
1. Effects on Children
2. Effects on Teachers
IV. The Transition from Discipline to Guidance
A. The Contribution of Early Childhood Educators
B. The Contribution of Developmentally Appropriate Practice
C. Guidance Defined
D. Guidance and the Conflict Management Movement
V. Parents and the Guidance Tradition
A. Froebel’s Kindergartens
B. Montessori’s Children’s Houses
C. The Nursery School Movement
D. Head Start
E. The Public Schools
F. Parents and Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Figure 1-1
Pioneers of the Guidance Tradition
Frederich Froebel 1782–1852 The teacher should see the natural impulses of the child not as a tendency toward evil but as the source and motivation for development that with guidance leads to character in the adult.
Maria Montessori 1870–1952 The child is in a process of dynamic development which the adult has attained. Children educate themselves through absorption in meaningful tasks in a process of self-discipline, leading to responsible decision-making.
John Dewey 1859–1952 Out of the occupation, out of doing things that are to produce results, and out of doing these things in a social and cooperative way, there is born a discipline of its own kind and type.
Jean Piaget 1896–1980 The modern ideal is cooperation—respect for the individual and for general opinion as elaborated in free discussion. Children come to this spirit of democracy through the practice of cooperation by adults who are able to make autonomous (intelligent and ethical) decisions themselves.
Recommended Readings
Bakley, S. (1997). Love a little more, accept a little more. Young Children, 52(2), 21.
Carlsson-Paige, N., & Levin, D. E. (1992). Making peace in violent times: A constructivist approach to conflict resolution. Young Children 48(1), 4–13.
Coleman, M. (1997). Families and schools: In search of common ground. Young Children, 52(5), 14–21.
Derman-Sparks, L. (1993). Empowering children to create a caring culture in a world of differences. Childhood Education, 70(2), 66–71.
DeVries, R., & Zan, B. (1995). Creating a constructivist classroom atmosphere. Young Children, 51(1), 4–13.
Elicker, J., & Fortner-Wood, C. (1995). Adult-child relationships in early childhood programs. Young Children, 50(1), 69–78.
Gage, J., & Workman, S. (1994). Creating family support systems: Head Start and beyond. Young Children, 50(1), 74–77.
Gandini, L. (1993). Fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Young Children, 49(1), 4–8.
Gartrell, D. (2001). Replacing time-out, part one: Using guidance to build an encouraging classroom. Young Children, 56(1), 8–16.
Porro, B. (1996). Talk it out: Conflict resolution in the elementary classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Audio-Visual Materials
Note: The following list of materials does not necessarily indicate author endorsement.
Common Threads. This video chronicles the history of education in the United States from the colonial period to the present. It examines how curricula have evolved, how the purposes of education have changed over time, and how technology affects modern education. Insight Media, 121 West 85th St., New York, NY 10024. 1-800-233-9910.
The Creation of Childhood. This video explores childhood throughout history. Insight Media, 121 West 85th St., New York, NY 10024. 1-800-233-9910.
Observing Children. This video emphasizes the importance of observing children carefully and pinpoints specific observable behaviors. Insight Media, 121 West 85th St., New York, NY 10024. 1-800-233-9910.
What Is This Thing Called Self-Esteem?—This video defines self-esteem and emphasizes the ability to distinguish between behaviors that indicate low self-esteem and positive self-esteem. Creative Education Video, PO Box 65265, Lubbock, TX 69424-5265. 1-800-922-9965.
Chapter Relevant Web Sites
Note: The following list of materials does not necessarily indicate author endorsement.
General Resources/Foundations
1. National Association for the http://www.naeyc.org/
Education of Young Children
2. North Central Regional
Educational Center http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/stw_esys/5erly_ch.htm
3. Early Childhood Education and Care http://home.sprintmail.com/~peggyriehl/
4. Children’s Defense Fund http://www.childrensdefense.org/
5. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary http://ericps.crc.uiuc.edu/eece
and Early Childhood Education
6. Children, Youth, and Families Consortium http://www.cyfc.umn.edu/
7. National Black Child Development http://www.nbcdi.org/
Institute
8. Association for Childhood http://www.udel.edu/bateman/acei/
Education International (ACEI)
9. National Institute on Early Childhood http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/ECI
Development and Education
10. Canada’s Schoolnet Staff Room http://www.schoolnet.ca/home/e/
Chapter Two
Child Development and Guidance
I. Piaget: A Foundation for the Study of Child Development
A. Developmental Egocentrism
B. Autonomy
II. Vygotsky: The Role of the Adult in Personal Development
A. Zone of Proximal Development
B. Scaffolding
C. Private Speech
D. Vygotsky’s Work Considered
III. Erikson: Personal Development and the Classroom
A. Trust versus Mistrust
1. Separation Anxiety
B. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
C. Initiative versus Guilt
D. Initiative and Belonging
E. Industry versus Inferiority
IV. Gardner and Goleman: New Views about Mental Abilities
A. Multiple Intelligences
B. Implications of Multiple Intelligences for Education
1. Multiple Intelligences and Early Childhood Education
C. The Matter of Assessment
D. Multiple Intelligences and Guidance
E. Emotional Intelligence
V. The Contributions of Brain Research
VI. Brain Research and Early Childhood Education
A. Infants
B. Toddlers
C. Young Children
VII. Dr. Brazelton Says . . .
VIII. A Climate for Partnership with Parents
A. Before School Begins
B. After Start-Up
Teaching Practices in Moral Classrooms that Build Autonomy
The teacher:
•Involves children in positive rule-making.
•Provides support structures (clear guidelines, equitable systems for taking turns and performing tasks, reliable routines, and so on).
•Promotes group problem solving and decision-making.
•Uses spontaneous interpersonal conflicts to teach conflict management skills.
•Models inclusion of all children as fully participating members of the class.
•Prevents exclusion of group members by peers as a result of behavioral, physical, or social/cultural vulnerabilities.
•Promotes the social and interpersonal aspects of learning.
•Uses non-competitive, observation-based assessment systems.
Chart adapted from Charlesworth (2000) and DeVries & Zan (1994).
Table 2-1
Erikson’s Childhood Stages and Corresponding Life Conflicts
Stage/Approximate Age Life Conflict
1. Infancy/ Birth to 18 months Trust versus mistrust
2. Toddlerhood/18 months to 42 months Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3. Preprimary/42 months to 6 years Initiative versus guilt
4. Primary/6 to 12 years Industry versus inferiority
Adapted from Erikson, 1963.
Table 2-2
Educational Practices that Foster Multiple Intelligences
Musical Expose children to various types of music; use rhythmic and melodic instruments; encourage dancing, singing, and song composing
Spatial Provide opportunities for exploring spaces, varying arrangements of materials, fitting materials into spaces, working puzzles, mapping and charting, creative art experiences
Linguistic Read to children; encourage reading, writing, oral expression, vocabulary development, learning other languages
Logical-mathematical Provide manipulatives for math; encourage puzzle and problem solving; encourage experimentation and prediction
Bodily-kinesthetic Encourage dancing, creative movement, making things with hands, running, climbing, practicing large and small motor skills, sports skills
Interpersonal Encourage social interactions, personal problem solving; conflict management; play games figuring out intentions and emotions of others and emphasizing cooperation
Intrapersonal Encourage expression of emotions, preferences, and thinking strategies. Help with understanding of wishes, fears, and abilities
Naturalist Encourage observation skills on field trips, in classroom activities, with classroom visitors. Encourage expression of observations through journals, artwork, discussions, and nonverbal creations
Adapted from Gardner (1995) and Shickedanz (1998).
Top Six Suggestions for Easing Separation Anxiety
6. Encourage parent to give regular and full explanations of the situation to help the child understand. Warmly take the child from the parent and reassure that “We’ll be fine.”
5. Remain calm and positive. Interest the child in an activity, perhaps with a friend that may be intriguing or at least diverting.
4. Explain to the child that his or her parent has to go to work, school, and so on, and will be back later. If old enough, give a time or later activity as a marker for the parent’s return. Refer to the time or activity in later discussions during the day.
3. Ask parent to bring a photo of himself or herself (perhaps with the child). Let the child look at the photo when the need arises.
2. Let the child bring a “lovey” (favorite stuffed toy or blanket); over time establish a place where the child can keep the lovey as he or she needs it less.
1. Encourage the child to write letters to his or her parent—whether the child uses art, personal script, or cursive writing. Invite the child to read the letter to you and/or the parent.
Recommended Readings
Berk, L. E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Brazelton, T. B., & Greenspan, S. (2000). The irreducible needs of children—what every child must have to grow, learn, and flourish. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
Diamond, M., & Hopson, J. (1998). Magic trees of the mind: How to nurture your child’s intelligence, creativity, and healthy emotions from birth through adolescence. New York: Dutton.
Elkind, D. (1997). The death of child nature: Education in the postmodern world. Phi Delta Kappan, 79, 241–245.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Perseus Book Group.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Development, 139–143.
Lollis, S. P. (1900). Effects of maternal behavior on toddler behavior during separation. Child Development, 61, 99–103.
Newberger, J. (1997). New brain development research—A wonderful window of opportunity to build public support for early childhood education. Young Children, 4–9.
Shores, E. F. (1995). Interview with Howard Gardner. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 23(4), 5–7.
Wolfe, P., & Brandt, R. (1998). What do we know from brain research? Educational Leadership, 56, 8–13.
Audio-Visual Materials
Note: The following list of materials does not necessarily indicate author endorsement.
10 Things Every Child Needs. In this video, experts such as Dr. T. Berry Brazelton, Dr. Bruce Perry, and Barbara Boweman discuss “ten simple things shown to help children’s Brain Development.” Well-known, watcher-friendly 60-minute video. Robert R. McCormick Tribune Foundation, 1997. Chicago, Illinois. 312-337-0480.
Howard Gardner, Into the Classroom: Intelligence, Understanding, and the Mind. Video. Second of two-video series. Into the Classroom Media, 10573 West Pico Blvd/ # 162, Los Angeles, CA 90064. 1-800-732-7946.
Multiple Intelligences. In this video program, educator David Lazaer argues that for all children to succeed instructors must adapt their teaching styles to multiple intelligences. He defines seven categories of intelligence: logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial, intrapersonal, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and musical. #UR784. Insight Media, 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024. 212-721-6316.
Nurturing Growth—Child Growth and Development. In this video, a child’s development takes place in the context of the child’s culture and family. This video examines how early childhood programs incorporate all the developmental domains and how teachers plan for the interaction of these domains to support the development of the whole child. #865. National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036. 800-424-2460.
Chapter Relevant Web Sites
Note: The following list of materials does not necessarily indicate author endorsement.
Child Development
1. Preschool Brain Growth http://www.preschoolrainbow.org/brain_growth.html
and Development
2. Zero to Three http://www.zerotothree.org/brainwonders/FAQ.html
3. Early Childhood Educational http://www.highscope.org/
Research Foundation
4. Early Childhood Research & Practice http://www.ecrp.uiuc.edu/
5. National Academy for Child http://www.nacd.org/
Development
6. Early Child Development http://www.ume.maine.edu/-cofed/eceol/curr.html
7. Early Childhood Care and http://www.ecdgroup.com
Development
Brain Research
8. World Bank Organization http://www.worldbank.org/children/why/brain.html
Chapter Three
Mistaken Behavior
I. Beyond Misbehavior
II. The Concept of Mistaken Behavior
III. Relational Patterns: A Model for Social Development in the Classroom
IV. Three Levels of Mistaken Behavior
A. Common Sources of Motivation
B. Level One: Experimentation Mistaken Behavior
C. Level Two: Socially Influenced Mistaken Behavior
1. Superheroes and Socially Influenced Mistaken Behavior
D. Level Three: Strong Needs Mistaken Behavior
1. Health Factors and Level Three Behaviors
2. Emotional Factors and Level Three Behaviors
3. Responding to Level Three Mistaken Behavior
V. Mistaken Behavior and Intentionality
VI. Visual Summary: Three Levels of Mistaken Behavior
VII. Communicating with Parents about Mistaken Behavior
Table 3-1
Common Sources of Motivation
Relational Patterns and Levels of Mistaken Behavior
Level of
Motivational Source Relational Pattern Mistaken Behavior
Desire to explore the Encounterer One: Experimentation
environment and engage
in relationships and activities
Desire to please and Adjustor Two: Socially influenced
identify with significant
others
Inability to cope with Survivor Three: Strong needs
problems resulting
from health conditions
and life experiences
Table 3-2
Using Comprehensive Guidance to Assist Wendy
a. Obtain more information Teacher contacted parent
b. Build a relationship with child Teacher became more understanding and less judgmental
c. Prevent problem situations Parents helped child understand situation
d. Intervene in non-punitive ways Teacher actively supported child during transition days
e. Teach child alternatives Child was able to show alternatives as her stress levels decreased
Table 3-3
Sample Mistaken Behaviors by Level
Incident of Level of
Mistaken Behavior Motivational Source Mistaken Behavior
Child uses expletive Wants to see teacher’s reaction One
Wants to emulate important others Two
Expresses deeply felt hostility Three
Child pushes another off trike Wants trike; has not learned to ask in words One
Follows aggrandizement practices Two
modelled by other children
Feels need to act out against world Three
by asserting power
Child refuses to join in Does not understand
group activity rules or teacher’s expectations One
Has “gotten into the habit” of not joining in Two
Is not feeling well or feels extreme Three
anxiety about participating
Guidance Tip for Talking With Parents about their Children
(Using Previous Anecdote Involving Wendy)
Adults and children have an easier time with requests for change and improvement when the teacher recognizes their efforts, progress, and achievements. The compliment sandwich helps the teacher keep this goal in mind and is an important technique in general communication (see Chapter Eight). With parents a triple-decker compliment sandwich is the goal.