Comprehension: Its Nature and Development

Annotated Bibliography

By: Sherrie Jones

What are the most effective ways to teach reading comprehension in elementary school?

Most of my teaching career has focused on helping students learn to read. Next year however, my goal will change to facilitating students reading to learn. In my nine years of teaching I have spent half teaching kindergarten and the other half teaching second grade, but next year I will be third grade teacher. Although there will still be occasions where I will need to review decoding and I am sure there will be some students who need to increase their fluency, my main focus will be reading comprehension. Therefore I chose to research the topic of reading comprehension and how to effectively address this topic in the classroom. I carefully read a variety of articles and selected 15 to annotate. My annotations include a summary of the content in the article, my evaluation of the content, and a reflection on how the content fits into my teaching beliefs and classroom situation. I follow up the annotations with a summary of what trends I see throughout the articles and how the articles answer my question.

Annotations

Barr, R. , Blachowicz, C. L. , and Wogman-Sadow, M. (1995). Comprehension: Its Nature and Development. Reading Diagnosis for Teachers: An Instructional Approach (pp. 143 - 171). NY: Longman Publishing Group.

In this chapter the authors present an overview of current beliefs about comprehension, emphasizing it is an active constructive process. They believe good readers use what they know when reading, “self-question” what they don’t know, integrate information across the text, and monitor their own reading. They identify four major influences of comprehension. The reader’s knowledge of language in reading and writing as well as speaking and listening, impacts his or her comprehension. The author’s linguistic and structural style can impact a reader’s understanding of the text. There are six linguistic devices used by authors that help facilitate the understanding of information. They are topic sentence, pronouns, synonyms, and synonymous expressions, definite article, syntactic structure, and connective terms. Instruction on how to effectively use these devices will aid in comprehension. The way the information is organized is another influence on comprehension, this is where schemata comes into play. The final influence on a reader’s comprehension is the need and the ability to make inferences. The second half of the chapter focused on developing good questions. Good questions stress connection to the text and go beyond the text. This type of questioning helps to foster inference and develop literary appreciation. Retelling is also an effective tool in measuring comprehension.

I found this chapter addressed my question by stressing both the selection of content and formation of questions. To effectively teach comprehension I must be aware of the particular language used in the text I select and teach any linguistic devices that apply. The formation of questions is as important as the text selection in this chapter. With an expository text a retelling of information may work best, here a student can share the information they learned from the text and I can pinpoint where rereading or additional instruction may be needed. With narrative text careful formation of questions that involve connection to the text as well as connection to other texts or personal experiences will be most meaningful.

Anderson, R. C. (1984). Role of Reader's Schema in Comprehension,

Learning, and Memory. In R. C. Anderson, Osborn, J. , and Tierney,

R. (Eds.), Learning to Read in American Schools: Basal Readers and

Content Text (pp. 372 – 384).Lawrence Eribaum Associates.

This selection focused on the role schema plays in one’s comprehension of text. The author defined schema as organized knowledge of the world. This knowledge provides much basis for comprehending, learning, and remembering the ideas in stories and text. The author quickly establishes the importance of schema by sharing passages where appropriate schema is necessary in order to understand any of the passage. Six functions of schema are then shared in the selection. Schema provides additional scaffolding for assimilating text information. Schema facilitates selective allocation of attention. Schema enables inferential elaboration. Schema allows orderly searches of memory. Schema facilitates editing and summarizing. Finally, schema permits inferential reconstruction. The author next shares implications for the design of materials and classroom instruction based on the implications of schema. He asks for activation of relevant knowledge before reading. He asks teachers’ manuals to include suggestions for building prerequisite knowledge. He calls for feature lesson activities that will lead children to meaningfully integrate what they already know with what is presented on the printed page. He urges employment that will highlight the structure of the text material. Finally he reminds us of minority children and how their schema may not match those of the majority culture thus causing difficulties in comprehension.

This selection focuses on the pre-reading necessities of my question. Not only is careful selection of text important, but also preparing my students for the text is key. I must know my students and what they bring with them to the page. I must then be able to bridge their schema with the necessary schema for successfully reading and understanding the text. How I bring my students schema to the appropriate place may vary from sharing simple background knowledge to connecting to personal experiences or even to creating an experience to better understand the text. Careful planning and implementation of activities is essential before my students even begin to read the page.

Applegate, A. J., & Applegate, M. D. (2004). The peter effect: reading habits

and attitudes of preservice teachers. The Reading Teacher,

57(6), 554 - 563.

This article focuses on how important motivation is to reading proficiency. Large populations of students are aliterate. Aliterate is defined as having the ability to read, but choosing not to do so. Some reading experts have referred to ideal readers as those who read regularly and enthusiastically thus becoming engaged readers. Intrinsic motivation is key in determining what type of reader students are. Efferent readers read to come away from the text with new information, very appropriate in reading content materials. Aesthetic readers, on the other hand, become absorbed in the text and live through the experiences of others, very appropriate when reading literature. This intrinsic motivation is very important in teachers because they can foster motivation in reading. In the classroom, teachers become reading models when they share their own reading experiences with students and emphasize how reading enhances and enriches their lives. Teachers who are enthusiastic readers are more likely to use instructional activities such as literature circles and discussions. These activities promote engagement thus fostering reading motivation in the classroom. The more students like to read the more they will read and the more they read, the better readers they will become.

This study just reinforced what I already knew, but to a further extent. Even at intermediate levels students need to be read to in an exciting and enthusiastic manner. Furthermore allowing students to see you reading is important, but more importantly is sharing the joy that reading brings to your life. We as teachers often forget how important are roles are. Students look up to us and see us as role models. Often what we display through words and actions will carry over to their words and actions. I love to read and must be sure that my students can see that in me and understand why I love to read. This may help to grow their love of reading.

Fielding, L. G., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Reading comprehension: what

works. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 62 – 70.

This article focuses on four essential components of successful comprehension instruction. The first is large amounts of time for actual text reading. Ample time for reading allows for the opportunity for students to practice reading skills. Reading also results in learning of new knowledge, which in turn aids in comprehension. Begin by giving opportunities and guidance in selecting text. Teachers need to monitor student text for optimal difficulty. Encouraging rereading of texts is beneficial as is discussing texts with the teacher or other students. The second component is teacher-directed instruction in comprehension strategies. Instruction should include using background knowledge to make inferences, getting the main idea, identifying the sources of information needed to answer a question, and using the typical structure of stories. Instruction should be demonstrated and guided practice is needed. Be sure that the strategies taught are authentic. Third is the opportunity for peer and collaborative learning. This may include cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching. Lastly students should have occasions to talk to the teacher or one another about their responses to reading.

This article addresses my question by stating that students need ample time to read and have the opportunity to discuss their reading with other. Explicit instruction of comprehension strategies is necessary as well as peer and collaborative learning. Students need to be reading more than I am talking to ensure that they are having ample time to develop their skills are readers.

Grimes, S. (2004). The search for meaning: how you can boost kids' reading

comprehension. School Library Journal, 50(5), 48 - 53.

This article focuses on a study completed in Baltimore at an at risk school It began based on the notion that children can learn to understand and love reading if they are engaged in what their reading. What followed was a study of first through third graders using lessons that would incorporate analytical skills. Lessons were 90 minutes long including 20 minutes for students to read, 50 minutes to confer with a partner, and 20 minutes to share their insights with the entire class. These lessons occurred daily for eight weeks. The results were excited students about reading and a rate of 96% passing their comprehension test where before the readers were apathetic and 50% failed the tests. Keys to the lessons are teaching kids the “five finger rule” when selecting texts. Direct instruction in reading strategies was provided and children were shown not just told how good readers read. Students must learn how to independent use comprehension strategies through guided practice and teachers monitoring and modifying instruction. Celebrating and share success is also key.

This selection addresses my question in several ways. Again in this study the importance of opportunity to read and discuss text is seen. The need for direct instruction that is in touch with where students are and where we want them to go is key.

Hashey, J. M., & Connors, D. J. (2003). Learn from our journey: reciprocal

teaching action research. The Reading Teacher, 57(3), 224 - 232.

This article is a summary of the action research of teachers in grades 3 – 8 using reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching is a four-step strategy used to enhance comprehension. In step one, students use predictions to recall what they already know about a topic and to hypothesize about what might happen next. In step two students generate questions to check for understanding and deepen comprehension. The third step is clarification. Here students identify words or concepts that don’t make sense to them and seek answers. Last in step four students summarize, requiring them to identify the most important information. The study found that reciprocal teaching should begin no sooner that third grade, decoding skills need to be in place. Reciprocal teaching allows for teacher modeling, think-alouds, guided practice, and independent practice. Using this strategy all students were able to participate and provide input and thought.

Reciprocal teaching is a strategy that proved to be an effective form of reading comprehension instruction. I can employ this practice with a variety of texts in the room both with whole group or small groups. Furthermore it will help increase communication and discussion skills among students.

Paris, S. G. , Wasik, B. A. , and Turner, J. C. (1991). The Development of

Strategic Readers. R. T. O'Connell, and Schorp, M. A. (Eds.),

Handbook of Reading Research, Volume II (pp. 609 - 640). White Plains,

NY: Longman Publishing Group.

This selection addresses the difference between expert readers and novice readers and how to move students from novice to expert reader. The chapter is organized into four sections. The first section focused on text-processing strategies used before, during, and after reading. The second section focused on how metacognition plays a role in development and instruction to address related needs. The third section discussed how motivation and strategic reading relate and how to increase motivation and self-worth. The fourth section shares suggestions for curriculum, instruction, and assessment centering around the ideas shared in the previous three sections. Throughout the chapter authentic language activities and cognitive activities were emphasized. The chapter also shared how even with all the right instruction in place strategic reading depends on the individual’s motivation and confidence.

In reviewing my question this article address specific skills and specific times to teach those skills. It also reinforces the need to create motivation and self-confidence in the reader so they will use the strategies they been taught. The article also mentioned the importance of role model in the area of reading from teachers to parents. It will be key to emphasize to parents the important role they play in modeling reading for pleasure and purpose.