A-Level/AS-Level Religious Studies
New Testament
The Gospels
Aims and Objectives
AIMS
This module aims to introduce students to New Testament studies in general and to Gospel studies in particular. This will include:
• consideration of the socio-historical contexts of the Gospel texts including political, socio-economic and religious factors in the Graeco-Roman world and Early Judaism
• exploration of the particular interests and sources of the authors including consideration of different approaches to biblical criticism
• assess the Passion and resurrection narratives in Mark (11;14:1-16:20), Matthew (27:57-28:17) and Luke (23:50-24:53) using theological, socio-historical, and exegetical techniques
OBJECTIVES
As an outcome of this topic, you should
• have a thorough understanding, and
• be able to offer a critical analysis and evaluation of the detailed aspects of the topic as set out in The Gospels Topic Overview.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
Knowledge and Understanding
At the successful completion of this module, students will have a basic familiarity with the source material and current issues in Jesus and gospel research, demonstrable in the following ways:
• Students will be able to show familiarity with the social, economic, political and cultural factors that influence and shed light on Jesus and the early Christian movement.
• Students will be able to discuss with critical rigour the character of the material contained within the Passion in Mark and resurrection narratives in the Synoptic Gospels.
• Students will be aware of the problems of authorship and their relationship to the different kinds of biblical criticism
Discipline Specific and Intellectual Skills
By participating in this module, students will have the opportunity to develop the following skills:
• Analysing ancient texts using diverse methodological tools and techniques
• Researching and analysing secondary sources in biblical scholarship (books, journals, websites)
Transferable Skills
By participating in the module, students will have the opportunity to develop the following skills:
• Basic essay writing and study skills
• Presentation and articulation of ideas in oral and written formats
• Formation of a reasoned argument by postulating and defending a thesis
• Critical evaluation of and interaction with the ideas of others
• Library/ internet research
KEY QUESTIONS
As we study this topic (and you revise it), you should bear the following key questions in mind:
-To what extent is the Synoptic Problem a problem?
-How significant is the socio-historical context of First Century Palestine for understanding the Passion and resurrection narratives?
-What are the questions and concerns surrounding the authorship, date and audience of Mark’s gospel?
-How are Old Testament ideas and Jewish features evident in the Passion and resurrection narratives?
-How are Mark’s theological concerns and the beliefs of the early church presented in the crucifixion narratives?
-How are the individual concerns and audiences of the Synoptic Gospel writers displayed in the resurrection accounts?
A-Level/AS-Level Religious Studies
Theology
The Gospels
Topic Overview
This topic involves familiarity with:
• The life of the Jews in first century Palestine
• Specifically, the origins, particular beliefs and practices of the Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes and Zealots
• The Roman occupation and its effect (both positive and negative) on the religious life of the Jews
• The Synoptic Problem including a basic knowledge of the proposed solutions, especially the two and four document hypotheses
• Source Criticism in relation to the Gospels
• A thorough knowledge (with the ability to paraphrase) of the Passion and resurrection narratives in Mark 11 and 14:1-16:20
• The intended readership, historical accuracy and evidence for use of sources in these texts
• The concepts of sacrifice, redemption, sin, resurrection and eternal life in relation to Old Testament and first century Jewish ideas. This includes an awareness of Jewish material about the Passover and Day of Atonement (Exodus 12-13, Leviticus 16)
• A critical consideration of the significance of the actions of the Jews and Romans in the Passion as recorded in the set texts
• Old Testament and Jewish features in the account both in terms of key ideas (Passover, Sabbath, Sanhedrin and the concept of Messiahship) and in terms of allusion to Old Testament texts and Jewish practices (texts from the Psalms, Wisdom, Isaiah and Zechariah)
• The presentation of the Jews, Romans, Disciples and women
• The theological significance of the Resurrection accounts in the Synoptic Gospels; the ending of Mark’s gospel.
N.B. Bibles are NOT permitted in the examination and questions focusing on the context of short passage (‘gobbet’ questions) will not be asked.
A-Level/AS-Level Religious Studies
Theology
The Gospels
Glossary
N.B. This glossary includes some basic terms you will be expected to know. Only the very basics are offered here which are by no means sufficient (meaning you will need to read beyond these definitions). They will, however, offer a useful starting point. These definitions are adapted from a variety of sources.
Source Criticism is a study of the gospels to determine the sources that have been used by the gospel writers. When the gospels are considered synoptically there are notable similarities yet also differences within the material. Accounting for these features is the aim of source critics so they might offer solutions to the so-called Synoptic Problem. Material may be in all three of the gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke, or only in Mark and Matthew, or Mark and Luke, or even only in Matthew and Luke. There is also material peculiar to each of the three gospels. There are various suggestions made to explain these features with which as examination candidates you need to be familiar, but from an examination point of view the most noteworthy is that of the Four Document Hypothesis. Proponents of this hypothesis use the idea of Marcan priority (Mark's Gospel written first - you should be aware of arguments to support this theory) and suggest that this gospel was used by both Matthew and Luke to certain degrees, while the latter gospel writers also used the common source Q, which explains material common to Matthew and Luke, and individually used material they acquired independently, for Matthew referred to as 'M', and for Luke 'L'. You may note that suggestions made about Marcan sources tend to be somewhat tenuous.
Form Criticism is a study of the gospels to identify the forms of the material which were passed around by word of mouth (hence reference to the oral period) as individual units or pericopae The forms which critics have suggested in various terms and languages, I will simply refer to as, pronouncement stories, tales, legends, myths and sayings. The major premise then appears to be that the Early Church has influenced the material that was retained and repeated within the oral period, and has even adapted or created material to present its own thinking of what was the necessary Christian message, which was primarily determined by its own life situation (hence sitz im leben) and needs. Such needs that have been suggested include worship, preaching, propaganda, apologetic, polemic, and missionary activities.
Redaction Criticism is a study of the gospels as finished entities to identity the redaction of material by the individual writers within their individual life situation (the third sitz im leben). This leads to a consideration of the theological perspectives of the writers and in particular of their characteristic emphases. There are various suggestions as to the nature of these characteristics but the following suggestions encompass a number of scholars' ideas and form a useful composite picture. Thus, Marcan characteristics are the presentation of a Jesus of action and authority, eyewitness details, the retention of Aramaic, persecution, simple style and language, and an unfolding messiahship. Characterisics of Matthew's Gospel are a Jewish interest and links, though suggested anti-Jewish elements, the Church, eschatology and judgement, Jesus as a royal figure, supernatural emphasis, and a special interest in the teaching of Jesus. For Luke, the characteristics are women, salvation and forgiveness, concern for outcasts, universality, the Holy Spirit, prayer and praise, humility, wealth, and the historical. You will need to read more on these so-called characteristics, and hopefully try to appreciate why the different characteristics should have been important to the individual evangelists who presented them.
Messiah
‘Messiah’ means the same as ‘Christ’ and both terms mean ‘the Anointed One’, Jewish tradition knows of three different types of anointed figure, that of king, priest and prophet.
Son of God
This is arguably the most significant christological title in the NT. “Son of God” or its equivalents (“the Son,” “my Son,” etc.) occur more than 124 times in the NT, and may be the foremost christological category in each of the Gospels. The NT characteristically describes Jesus’ relationship to God in terms of divine sonship. The concept itself carries a variety of meanings, including commissioning to special work, obedience, intimate fellowship, knowledge, likeness and the receiving of blessings and gifts.
Son of Man
The phrase “the Son of man” is the phrase used more frequently than any other (except “Jesus” itself) to refer to Jesus in the Gospels. It occurs in all four Gospels and only once outside them. Within the Gospels it is found only in sayings ascribed to Jesus. This evidence shows that “the Son of man” functions as a self-designation of some kind; it never became a way for other people to refer to Jesus, and it thus played no part in the confessional and doctrinal statements of the early church, unlike “Christ,” “Lord” and “Son of God.”
Son of Man As Divine and Human. On the one hand, there is the phrase itself and the associations it would have for hearers and readers. In the Gospels as we have them, it points the reader to the figure in Daniel 7 who is a person with sovereign authority, a messianic figure, identified in 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra with the Messiah, God’s Son and Elect One. Such a figure would be seen as in some sense divine in that he comes from heaven, and the description of him in Daniel 7 could be taken as an apotheosis, or “deification.” He would be associated with the people of God, and in that sense the Son of man can be regarded as a corporate figure. It is because of this dual origin of the phrase that it can be used to refer both to the humanity of Jesus and also to his divine origin. Jesus can use the term to refer to himself as a human over against God (Mk 2:10, 28), but also to indicate his divine origin. In the latter case “Son of man” is a veiled way of expressing his relationship to God.
The Son of Man’s Mission. On the other hand, this self-designation becomes the vehicle for teaching about the activity and fate of Jesus. He appears in the Synoptic Gospels as a figure of authority on earth who is not accepted by many people. He has a divinely ordained destiny, expressed in the Scriptures, which involves betrayal, rejection, suffering, death and resurrection. He has a future role in which he “comes” and brings salvation and judgment. In the Gospel of John there is greater stress laid on the fact that he comes from God and returns to be with him.
Kingdom of God
The term “kingdom of God” or “kingdom of Heaven” signifies God’s sovereign, dynamic and eschatological rule. The kingdom of God lay at the heart of Jesus’ teaching. As proclaimed by Jesus the kingdom of God had continuity with the OT promise as well as with Jewish apocalyptic thinking, but differed from them in important respects. For example, it denoted God’s eternal rule rather than an earthly kingdom, its scope was universal rather than limited to the Jewish nation, and it was imminent and potentially present in him rather than a vague future hope, being inextricably connected with his own person and mission.
Moses was a key figure in first-century Judaism. He was seen as the major founder of Israel and its religion – he was prophet, law-giver, teacher and ruler. Moses saw God face to face and took from God the tablets of stone on which the Laws of Israel were inscribed. Moses became a figure of even greater importance than David since there were no more kings of David’s line ruling the country. Any new hero-figure had, therefore, to be compared with Moses.
The Sadducees looked to the creation of a Jewish state centred on the Jerusalem Temple. Sadducees were known for their conservatism. They rejected the enduring validity of anything but the written rules in the first five books of the OT (the Pentateuch). They also rejected the idea of an after-life or rewards and punishments. However they strongly affirmed free will and claimed that the outcome of events was due to human free decisions, not to fate. The Sadducees lived out rules found in the OT book Leviticus and saw no need for any significant changes in these rules.
The Pharisees relied on a similar OT background. Pharisees believed in adapting the Jewish Law to meet new situations. In particular, they applied the ritual purity rules which had been used in the Temple to life in the ordinary domestic household. This was highly significant as when the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD, the Pharisee movement was able to adapt because it did not rely on the Temple in the same way as the Sadducees. Because the Law and purity rituals were centred on each home, the Pharisee movement could prosper and provide continuity for the Jews.