European History
January 23-27-2017
ü Don't get confused below: for Monday 3rd and 4th Period will be on separate assignments but both will quiz on Tuesday (see below)
ü The Communist Manifesto book review will be due February 3rd but be aware that you will have other assignments to complete so do not procrastinate!
ü We will be moving into chapter 22 in your textbook without a discussion of the Revolution in the German states. I prefer to discuss this with German unification a little later on. At the end of the week you will need your textbook on both Thursday and Friday
MONDAY (Period 3)
· Examine the Congress of Vienna and the resurgence of conservatism in the early 19th century.
Materials Strategy/Format
Notes/ppt Lecture-discussion
Introduction
Ø Well, as you remember we dispatched Napoleon to St. Helena never to deal with him again. However, the major powers were left with the fallout of 10 years. The French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars left a scar not just on the landscape of Europe but upon the collective psyche of conservative powers (deep huh?).
Ø Liberalism and nationalism will become the most powerful forces of the 19th century. Both will be feared by conservative regimes because they do not subscribe to all liberal values and most of the conservative empires rule over multi-national and sometimes multi-ethnic peoples. Therefore nationalist movements would lead to diminished power (think about the Austrian and Ottoman Empires here). By mid century these two will have also blended together and were reflected in cultural movement known as Romanticism. Finally also by mid-century a new and powerful force makes it appearance; socialism.
Ø The major powers had come to Vienna to discuss not only a peace treaty but a way to establish a lasting balance of power structure for the future. After the 100 Days interruption of Napoleon’s return from Elba in 1814 the Congress of Vienna reconvened but tensions developed over a number of issues. Britain’s representative would ultimately leave the meeting believing that it had failed. However, the Concert of Vienna did craft a congress system that helped stop any major wars until WWI (The Crimean War will ultimate cause the breakup of the Congress System in 1853-1856).
France after Napoleon
Ø Once Napoleon was finally defeated, French royalists returned the Bourbon Monarchy to the throne and, similar to the English Restoration and Glorious Revolution, now the French monarchs knew that they would always be a constitutional monarchy.
Ø Louis XVIII was old and in generally poor health when he ascended the throne. Though his reign was not contentious as might have been expected, future Queen Victoria said of him, “Louis XVIII was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle, very proud and false.” His reign was not as embattled as the leaders that would follow. Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning. All of the others would be overthrown.
Ø The Charter of 1814 was the new constitution. Catholicism was once again proclaimed the official religion of France. To be eligible for election to the Chamber of Deputies, one had to pay over 1,000 francs per year in tax, and be over the age of forty. The King appointed peers to the Chamber of Peers on a hereditary basis, or for life at his discretion (similar to the House of Lords in Britain). There were 90,000 citizens eligible to vote, far below the number that had existed under the French Revolution and Napoleon’s reign.
Ø One of the key issues that did cause problems for Louis XVIII was the growing divisiveness of factions within the government. Though he was obviously royal, he tended to support the centrists, a moderate group. However, a more conservative faction generally known as the “ultras” were growing. Their goal was to return France to most of pre-revolutionary values.
The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance forms 1814-1815
Ø In Vienna Prince Clemens von Metternich was the primary architect of the Congress System and masterfully crafted a balance of power structure
Ø Czar Alexander I of Russia represented his kingdom at the meeting (though he had his advisor Nesselrode with him) and was constantly voicing support for a more conservative Europe that would guarantee that the liberalism that he believed caused Napoleon’s rise, must be controlled.
Ø The British representative was Foreign Secretary Lord Castleraegh. He was constantly worried that the meetings were not staying on task and realized that the czar was perhaps pushing conservativism too far. He left the meeting and committed suicide and was replaced by Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington
Ø For Prussia a series of negotiators were involved but like Czar Alexander I, Kaiser Frederick William III was also there
Ø France was represented by Foreign Minister Lord Tallyrand.
Ø One of the most important aspects of the meeting was the decision to not severely punish France for the war. The fact that France now had a king again probably had some role to play in the far treatment. While France did lose some land, it became more important to let France retain its power as a player in international politics and as a weapon of conservatism.
Important Decisions
Ø There were serious disputes at the meeting. One of the most critical was the future of Poland and Saxony. Of course Poland had been partitioned between Austria, Prussia, and Russia but Napoleon had returned some level of sovereignty called the Duchy of Warsaw. Saxony, a land taken by Prussia but returned to Austria, was now more of a bone of contention because the new French king held estates there.
Ø Russia believed in keeping the Duchy of Warsaw but wanted to control it. Czar Alexander I would be the new Polish King. Alexander I received support for this from Prussia in exchange for Russians assurances to get Saxony from Austria.
Ø Austria did not want to lose Saxony and was supported in this by Britain who feared a much stronger Russia (who might one day cause problems for the “line of communication” to India)
Ø Tallyrand shrewdly stepped in offering a secret treaty with Britain to join them in a war over Poland if Russia and Prussia became aggressive. (an interesting historical note is that this was the ultimate situation that occurred when WWII started September 1st 1939) then “leaked this” at the Congress. It had the desired effect. Russia backed off but a smaller Poland was created under a “congress” all knew that the Russia was still the major player in the region. They will later essentially take it over.
Ø Another problem at the meeting was a growing German nationalist movement. This was a direct result of Napoleon’s influence and will be discussed in great detail later this week. He had supported German unification and had created the pro-French Confederation of the Rhine led principally by Bavaria. This was a direct threat to Austria because technically they still controlled the Germanic States (now 39 of them). Also, they feared any strengthening of Prussia because they were a rallying point for German nationalists who saw Frederick William III as a potential king of a united Germany. More on this later. Instead of an independent Germany, a loose German confederation was inaugurated with Austria as the so-called leader.
The Holy Alliance 1815
Ø Though the Holy Alliance professed to export the Solemn Ideas of Christianity, it also was something of a declaration of war on liberalism and nationalism. They reaffirmed a concept of divine right, “the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely designated by Providence to govern three branches of the one family, namely, Austria, Prussia, and Russia.” This later included France.
Ø By 1820 the Holy Alliance showed its true intent. The Protocol of Troppau , promulgated by Metternich, consecrated the right of the great powers to intervene in the internal affairs of other states where revolution may threaten their rule or interests. Among the European powers, only Great Britain took objection to this principle and refused to abide by it. The text follows.
"States which have undergone a change of Government due to revolution, the results of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alternations, immediate danger threatens other states, the Powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance."
Ø The Protocol of Troppau committed the above to use military force if necessary to halt nationalism and liberalism because both forces were seen as revolutionary at the time. This was a key turning point. It is similar to the current “war on terrorism” in that the Holy Alliance (like the US and Britain) have declared war on an ideology rather than simply a government. This marks a major shift in both wars and politics and will be completely evident in the early 20th century.
Ø A Key example of this was when German nationalists protested for a united Germany under the German Kaiser Frederick William III. Metternich responded with the Carlsbad Decrees that escalated pressure on German revolutionaries and the governments that may have been supporting them. (More on this later)
Conclusion
Britain refused to join the Holy Alliance for several reasons. First, Britain was already more liberal than any of the alliance members and as a result, could not in good conscious attack others. Second, King George IV rightly assumed that such an alliance would commit Britain to military interventions. The Holy Alliance seemed poised to return conservatism to Spain and the worry was where or not that this would include the newly independent Latin American nations such as Bolivia and Argentina (and others). It is at this juncture that Lord Canning, the new head of the Foreign office and later PM, reaches out to the U.S. about the possibility of forming an alliance to stop the potential threat of the Holy Alliance. While the U.S. refused this alliance secret negotiations and commitment of similar goals formed the cornerstone of the Monroe Doctrine 1823.This committed the US and Britain to what came to be known as a “special relationship.” While there were many bumps in the road thereafter, generally the Anglo-American relationship remained strong.
Homework
Study the web notes and class notes for a quiz on Tuesday. This will cover both Romanticism and the Conservative Resurgence (short answer format)
MONDAY (Period 4)
· Analyze primary sources on the Romanticism and Revolution
Materials Strategy/ Format
primary source documents Analyze source-close text reading
Introduction and Instructions
· As we have seen, the post-Napoleonic era was rife with political turmoil between conservatives and the liberal nationalists (plus a smattering of socialists). Today we will use some primary and secondary sources to examine the wave of revolutions that erupted in the 1820s-1830s. On Wednesday we will go into more details about the 1830July Revolution in France but for now a few primary sources will suffice.
· Simply read the primary sources and answer a few guided questions on the topic. This is not a group project and it is due today!
Homework for Tuesday Night
Study the web notes and class notes for a quiz on Tuesday. This will cover both Romanticism and the Conservative Resurgence (short answer format)
TUESDAY (Both Classes)
· Assessment: Romanticism and the Conservative Resurgence
Materials Strategy/Format
quiz forms Assessment and review
Instructions
This is a short answer format quiz covering the two major topics of the new unit Romanticism and the Conservative Resurgence of, what I like to call "The Empire Strikes Back"
You will need your own paper for this assignment and it should
likely take most of the class period.
WEDNESDAY and THURSDAY
· Examine the causes and effects of the 1830 and 1848
French Revolutions (PP-10)(SP-4)
· Analyze primary sources
Materials Strategy/Format
ppt and video (Les Mis) lecture-discussion/primary
source analysis
Introduction
· As we mentioned yesterday with our discussion of Romanticism, mid-late 19th century Europe was characterized by a wave of liberal nationalism that impacted many European nations. Unleashed by the Enlightenment and Napoleonic Wars. We saw that Britain like other nations was impacted by the process and, after a flirtation with ultra-conservatism moved more towards liberalism avoiding revolution (The Sic Acts and Peterloo Massacre culminating in the Great Reform Bill 1839). However, on the continent matters were different. Without most vestiges of liberal government, the people turned toward revolution (much of it captured in the work of Romantic writers and artists). The revolutions fall into two categories: liberal and nationalist covering a period from 1820-1848. A few of the revolutions fall into both categories (like Belgium and Germany among others)
· Well, as we saw following Napoleon's defeat the Congress of Vienna reinstalled the Bourbon Monarchy of Louis XVIII to rule France. While it was a monarchy it was far from absolutist (only Russia could truly be called that by this era). There was a bicameral assembly but qualifications were very narrow (property and age 40+ to serve). And, only a few thousands of eligible voters for a nation of several million.
· While Louis XVIII was never terribly popular he did understand that he had to rule with some measure of consent of the people. Nearing the end of his life and in failing health he the King opposed the extreme conservative views of a group known as the Ultras of the who were determined to wipe out every vestige of the Revolution, and he dissolved the parliament in September 1816. After 1820, however, the ultras exercised increasing control and thwarted most of Louis’s attempts to heal the wounds of the Revolution. At Louis XVIII death in 1824 he was succeeded by his brother, the Count d’Artois, who now ruled as Charles X.
· There was little doubt that now as king Charles X and his Ultras would attempt to not only overthrow Louis XVIII slightly more liberal Chart constitution but perhaps restore absolutism itself. Consequently his first move was to restore power to the most reactionary elements in French society. The power of the Catholic Church was to be restored and there was some hint that lost lands (1792) would be restored. One of the first signs of discontent was when Because of what it perceived to be growing, relentless, and increasingly vitriolic criticism of both the government and the Church, the government of Charles X introduced into the Chamber of Deputies a proposal for a law tightening censorship, especially in regard to the newspapers. The Chamber, for its part, objected so violently that the humiliated government had no choice but to withdraw its proposals.