Chapter 20 Piety Passion and Politics: 15th Century Art in Northern Europe and Spain - Notes
In the Late Gothic world, Western Europe north of the Alps experienced the calamities of war and plague, and the social turmoil and dislocations that accompanied dying feudalism. The Black Death that ravaged Italy in 1348 also decimated much of the rest of Europe. Crisis in the religious realm added to this period’s instability and led to The Great Schism, which pitted the French against the Italians. The Hundred Years’ War (1337 - 1453) further contributed to the upheaval across Europe. Primarily a series of protracted conflicts between France and England, the War also involved Flanders. Technically, Flanders was a principality or country in the Netherlands, a country that consisted of Belgium, the Netherlands (more commonly called Holland),Luxembourg and part of Northern France. However, during the 15th century, “Flanders” also referred more generally to a larger territory. During the Hundred Years‘War, urban revolts erupted in this larger Flanders, England’s chief market for raw wool. France’s intervention in the Flemish problem threatened England’s revenues, intensifying the antagonism between England and France that underlay the long-simmering war.
Consolidating Political Power
Politically, the widespread European movement toward centralized government, begun in the 12th century, continued. Structured bureaucracies, royal courts, and parliamentary assemblies were becoming the norm, creating conflicts with lingering feudalism. During the latter part of the 15th century, several kings successfully consolidated their authority over their respective countries, exerting and expanding their power in a more systematic and comprehensive way.
Emerging Capitalism
Despite the troubles of the age, a new economic system also evolved - the early stage of European capitalism. Responding to the financial requirements of trade, new credit and exchange systems created an economic network of enterprising European cities. The trade in money accompanied the trade in commodities, and the former financed industry. Both were in the hands of trading companies with central offices and international branches; the Medici of Florence was a notable example of such a trading firm. The origin of the French word for “stock market” demonstrates the importance of Flanders to Europe's economic development. Bourse came from the name of the van der Beurse family, who’s residence in Bruges (now a Belgium city) was the center of economic activity. The first international commercial stock exchange, established in Antwerp in 1460, became pivotal for Europe’s integrated economic activity. The thriving commerce, industry, and finance contributed to the evolution of cities, as did the migration of a significant potion of the rural population to urban centers.
Flourishing of Art
The widespread convulsions that swept across Europe did not impede artistic development; the 15th century witnessed the increased use of oil paints in Flanders, the maturation of manuscript illumination, and the invention of moveable type printing in Germany. These developments had a dramatic impact on artistic production worldwide. The art produced during this period in Northern Europe emphatically demonstrates the dynamic relationship between art and its historical context - the way art both reflects and contributes to historical developments. Northern European art of the 15th century, appropriately, focuses on the major aspects of life at the time - piety and political power, and the relationship between the two.
French Manuscript Illumination
During the 15th century, French artists built upon the expertise of earlier manuscript illuminators and produced exquisitely refined images. Knowledge of stained glass, with its profound luminosity and rich jewel like colors, no doubt contributed to the colorful mastery demonstrated by these illuminators.
Among the most significant developments in French illumination was a new concept and presentation of space. Illuminations took on more pronounced characteristics of illusionistic scenes; rather than appear simply as images on flat surfaces, illuminations were conceived by artists and perceived by viewers as illusionary and three dimensional images. This interest in illusionism may have been influenced by increased contact with artists from Italy, where the development of humanism revived principles and images of classical antiquity. What this illusionism cultivated was a new relationship between viewer and image. By presenting the illusion of a three dimensional scene, the illuminated page became a liminal space between the viewer and that scene, strengthening the connection between the two - not just in physical terms, but socially, politically, spiritually and emotionally as well.
The Limbourg Brothers
Among the early 15th century artists who furthered the maturation of manuscript illumination where the three Limbourg Brothers - Pol (Paul?), Hennequin (Jean? Jan?), and Herman. The Limbourg brothers produced a gorgeously illustrated Book of Hours for Jean, the duke of Berry (1340 - 1416) and brother of King Charles V of France. The duke was an avid art patron and focused much of his collecting energy on manuscripts, jewels, and rare artifacts. He owned over 300 manuscripts, including the Belleville Breviary. The Limbourg Brothers worked on the manuscript Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Sumptuous Hours of the Duke of Berry), until their death in 1416. A Book of Hours, like a breviary, was a book used for reciting prayers. As prayer books they replaced the traditional Psalters, which had been the only liturgical books in private hands until the mid 13th century. The centerpiece of the Book of Hours was the “Office (prayer) of the Blessed Virgin,” which contain liturgical passages to be read privately at set times of the day from dawn till the end of the day. An illustrated calendar containing local religious feast days usually preceded the “Office of the Blessed Virgin.” Penitential psalms, devotional prayers, litanies of the saints, and other prayers, including those of the dead and of the Holy Cross, followed the centerpiece. Such books became favorite possessions of the northern aristocracy during the 14th and 15th centuries. They eventually became available to affluent burghers and contributed to the decentralization of religious practice that was one factor in the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century.
The Calendar pictures of “The Very Sumptuous Hours of the Duke of Berry” are perhaps the most famous in the history of manuscript illumination. They represent the 12 months in terms of associated seasonal tasks, alternating between scenes of nobility and peasantry. Above each picture is a lunette depicting the chariot of the sun as it makes its yearly cycle through the 12 months and zodiac signs. Beyond its function as a religious book, this book of hours also visually captures the power of the duke and his relationship to the peasants.
Our first illumination is for the month of January. It depicts a a new Years reception at court. The duke appears as a magnanimous host, his head circled by the fire screen, almost halo like, behind him. The richness and extravagance of the scene and the occasion are augmented by the lavish spread of food on the table and the large tapestry on the back wall. Scholars, from careful study of the passages of the poetry written on the tapestry, have concluded the tapestry scene is a depiction of the Trojan War.
In contrast, the illustration for October focuses on peasantry. The peasants do not appear to be particularly disgruntled as they go about their tasks; flattering the duke sense of himself as a compassionate master. The growing interest in the depiction of the observed world is revealed here in the careful architectural detail of the castle which is thought to be the Louvre.
As a whole, “The Very Sumptuous Hours of the Duke of Berry” reinforced the image of the duke of Berry as a devout man, cultured bibliophile, sophisticated art patron, and powerful and magnanimous leader. It also further expanded the range of subject matter, especially the prominence of genre subjects in a religious book, reflecting the increasing integration of religious and secular concerns in both art and life of the time.
All three brothers died in 1416, before completing this Book of Hours, and another court illustrator finished the manuscript 70 years later.
15th Century Flemish Art
The duke of Berry’s grand nephew Philip the Good (1396 - 1467), ruled a region known as the Duchy of Burgundy: hence the duke of Burgundy. This region of France was known for its wines. In the 14th century, one of Philip the Good’s predecessors, Philip the Bold (1342 - 1404), had married the daughter of the count of Flanders, thereby acquiring counties in the Netherlands. With them came the rich industrial, commercial, and banking cities that together were pivotal for economic development of northern and western Europe. The duke of Burgundy wielded power over Flanders and broader Flanders.
Burgundy was a dangerous rival to royal France. The major city Bruges initially derived its wealth from the wool trade and soon expanded into banking, becoming the financial clearinghouse for all of northern Europe.
The dukes of Burgundy were the most powerful rulers in northern Europe during the first three quarters of the 15th century. Although cousins of the French kings, they usually supported England (on which they relied for raw materials used in their wool industry) during the Hundred Years’ War and, at times, controlled much of Northern France, including Paris. The rash policies of the last of the ruling line, Charles the Bold, who died in 1477 at the Battle of Nancy, brought and end to the Burgundian kingdom. After Charles’ death, France reabsorbed the Southern Burgundian lands and the Netherlands passed to the Holy Roman Empire by virtue of the dynastic marriage of Charles’ daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to Maximilian of Habsburg.
Piety and Politics
Despite the resolution of the Great Schism in 1417, religion continued to play an important role in Flemish lives, and religious art remained prominent. This commitment to religion and art was on all levels of Flemish society. Philip the Bold demonstrated his commitment to the Christian Church through commissions, charitable donations, and support of religious orders.
Philip the Bold’s interest in the Church was beyond personal salvation and example. He sought to use the church to expand his power. Philip, and other rulers were aware that the Great Schism was about power and control; not doctrine. Philip supported Clement VII in Avignon thinking he could control him rather than a Pope in Rome.
The heightened politicization of the Church impacted clergy. The duke determined upper level Church appointments; bishops, abbots, etc. These appointments based on political support rather than righteous example, led to great spiritual corruption; neglect of clerical function, immoral behavior, and the pursuit of material gain. The populace reacted to this decline in clerical in spirituality with an upsurge in devotional practices. Pilgrimages and processions escalated, as did the worship of the Virgin Mary. A wide range of Flemish society commissioned both public and personal devotional objects to accompany these religious exercises. These objects helped ensure the donor’s eventual salvation and promoted greater piety among the faithful. Guilds commonly commissioned art; through guilds, the middle class became more involved in art patronage.
In addition to appreciating the aesthetic value of art, the dukes understood how art could support dynastic and political goals. The commissions served to reinforce for viewers the dukes artistic sophistication, but also their power and legacy, as well. Leaders commissioned portraits of prospective brides from far flung places, or donated artworks to cities as reminders of the rulers visit there. Philip the Bold ruled for 40 years and was among the greatest art patrons in northern Europe. His interests centered on illuminated manuscripts, tapestries, and rich furnishings for his castles and town homes. He also maintained an entire workshop of sculptors. Philip’s largest artistic enterprise was the building of the Chartreuse (Carthusian monastery) de Champmol, near Dijon. Founded in the late 11th century by Saint Bruno, the Carthusian order consisted of monks who devoted there lives to solitary living and prayer. Carthusian monasteries did not generate revenues. Philip the bolds generous endowment at Champmol was significant and attracted artists from all parts of Northern Europe. Intended as a tomb repository for members of members of the Valois house of Burgundy, the Chartreuse de Champmol also served as a dynastic symbol meant to ensure Burgundian power and salvation in perpetuity.
The Well of Moses
Philip the Bold placed sculptor Claus Sluter (active 1380 - 1406) in charge of his sculptor workshop. For the cloister of the Chartreuse de Champmol, Sluter designed a large sculptural fountain located in a well. The well served as a water source for the monastery. It seems probable that the fountain did not actually spout water because of the Carthusian commitment to silence and prayer would have precluded anything that produced sound. Although Sluter died before completing the entire fountain, he did finish Well of Moses. Moses, David, and four prophets (Daniel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zachariah) surround the base that once supported a Crucifixion group. Despite the nonfunctioning nature of this fountain, it had immense symbolic significance. The entire structure served as a symbolic fountain of life, with the blood of Christ (on the cross above) flowing down over the Old Testament prophets, washing away their sins and spinning into the well below. The Well of Moses represented the promise of everlasting life.
The six figures recall the jamb sculptures of Gothic portals, though these are much more realistically rendered. Sluter’s intense observation of natural appearance provided him with the information necessary to sculpt the figures in minute detail. Heavy draperies with voluminous folds, characterize Sluter’s style, swath the life-size figures. His surfaces are remarkably naturalistic. Sluter skillfully differentiated textures of the course drapery, smooth flesh, and silky hair. The paint, much of which has flaked off, was applied to the sculptural surfaces by Jean Malouel (uncle of the Limbourg brothers) and further arguments the naturalism of the figures. This fascination with the specific and tangible in the visible world became one of the chief characteristics of 15th century Flemish painting. Yet despite the realism of Sluter’s figures, they do not evidence much physical movement or weight shift.
Public Devotional Imagery: Altar Pieces
Large scale public altarpieces were among the most visible manifestations of piety. From their position behind the altar (the most common location for altarpieces in the 15th century), these altarpieces served as backdrops for the Mass. The Mass represents a ritual celebration of the Holy Eucharist. Because the Mass involves not only a memorial rite but complex Christian doctrinal tenets as well, art has traditionally played an important role in giving visual form to these often complex theological concepts for a wide public and often illiterate audience. They also reinforced church doctrines for viewers and stimulated devotion. Functioning as a backdrop for the Mass, scenes often depict Christ’s sacrifice. These public altarpieces took to form of polyptychs (hinged multipaneled paintings) or carved relief panels. The hinges allowed users to close the polyptychs side wings over the central panel(s). Artists decorated both the exterior and the interior of the altarpieces. This multi-image format provided artists the opportunity to construct narratives through a sequence of images, some what like manuscript illustrations. Although scholars do not have concrete information about specific circumstances in which these altarpieces were opened or closed, evidence suggests that they remained closed on regular days and were opened on Sundays and feast days. This schedule would have allowed viewers to see both the interior and the exterior - diverse imagery at various times according to the liturgical calendar. Later differing Protestant conceptions of the Eucharist led, ultimately, to a decline in the altarpiece as a dominant art form.
The Ghent Altarpiece
The Ghent Altarpiece in Saint Bavo Cathedral in Ghent is one of the largest and most admired Flemish altarpieces of the 15th century. Jodocus Vyd and his wife Isabel Borluut commissioned this polyptych from Jan Van Eyck (1390 - 1441). That Van Eyck was the court painter for Philip the Good reveals the powerful circles in which Vyd traveled. Vyd’s largess and political and social connections that this work revealed to its audience contributed to Vyd’s appointment as burgomeister (chief magistrate) of Ghent shortly after this work was unveiled. Completed in 1432, the Ghent Altarpiece functioned as the liturgical centerpiece of the endowment established in the chapel that Vyd and Borluut built. This chapel is located in a local church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist (now Saint Bavo Cathedral).