Supplemental Materials
Continuous Feelings of Love? The Parental Bond From Pregnancy to Toddlerhood
by E. S. A. de Cock et al., 2015, Journal of Family Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000138
Table S1. Parent-, Child-, and Contextual Correlates of Maternal Bonding Patterns from Pregnancy to Toddlerhood
High levels of bonding (45.5%) / Class 2
Low levels of bonding (25.3%) / Class 3
Intermediate levels of bonding (16.3%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (13%) / Significance testing
Maternal characteristics
Age / 31.54 (0.39)a,b / 33.01 (0.58)b / 30.00 (0.72)a / 29.64 (0.68)a / Wald = 5.94, p = .001
Education
0–4 years
5–8 years
≥9 years / 11.2%a
24.3%
64.5% / 8.1%a
28.3%
63.6% / 6.7%a
14.8%
78.5% / 28.7%b
34.4%
36.9% / Wald = 11.71, p = .008
Wald = 2.85, p = .41
Ethnicity (Dutch) / 84.3% / 75.7% / 86.3% / 75.4% / Wald = 2.69, p = .44
Birth of sibling during study (yes) / 11.9% / 19.7% / 15.1% / 15.4% / Wald = 0.96, p = .81
Personality
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional stability
Resourcefulness / 5.31 (0.10)b
5.17 (0.09)a,b
5.80 (0.05)b
5.03 (0.10)b
4.74 (0.09) / 4.81 (0.16)a
4.91 (0.13)a
5.44 (0.10)a
4.60 (0.14)a
4.58 (0.11) / 5.39 (0.21)a,b
4.74 (0.23)a
5.75 (0.10)a,b
4.77 (0.17)a,b
4.66 (0.17) / 5.64 (0.18)b
5.61 (0.16)b
6.16 (0.10)c
5.09 (0.18)a,b
5.05 (0.18) / Wald = 12.56, p = .006
Wald = 16.65, p = .001
Wald = 29.32, p < .001
Wald = 8.65, p = .034
Wald = 5.36, p = .15
(Table continues)
Mothers / Class 1High levels of bonding (45.5%) / Class 2
Low levels of bonding (25.3%) / Class 3
Intermediate levels of bonding (16.3%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (13%) / Significance testing
Prenatal anxiety / 31.79 (0.71)a / 36.00 (1.15)b / 34.16 (1.39)a,b / 30.07 (1.51)a / Wald = 15.61, p = .001
Postnatal anxiety
4 months
24 months / 25.67 (0.63)a
5.50 (0.28)b / 33.71 (1.45)b
7.33 (0.58)c / 28.88 (1.66)a,b
5.50 (0.66)b,c / 25.49 (1.21)a
4.41 (0.26)a / Wald = 31.65, p < .001
Wald = 30.06, p < .001
Attachment style (secure) / 66.7% / 58.6% / 72.8% / 61.0% / Wald = 1.60, p = .66
Child characteristics
Child sex (boy) / 53.4% / 55.1% / 46.0% / 34.3% / Wald = 4.20, p = .24
Gestational age at birth (weeks) / 39.92 (0.13) / 39.78 (0.21) / 39.62 (0.29) / 39.48 (0.30) / Wald = 2.05, p = .56
Birth weight (grams) / 3,404.45 (48.72) / 3,474.33 (71.06) / 3,455.77 (92.18) / 3,319.10 (90.84) / Wald = 2.23, p = .53
Parity (first child) / 57.2% / 40.5% / 66.1% / 64.8% / Wald = 6.58, p = .087
Temperament 6 months / 58.02 (1.25)b / 69.75 (2.01)c / 65.76 (2.63)c / 49.19 (2.06)a / Wald = 63.55, p < .001
Temperament 24 months
Negative affect
Effortful control / 2.51 (0.06)a,b
5.05 (0.08)b / 2.78 (0.09)b
4.52 (0.11)a / 2.92 (0.19)b
4.73 (0.18)a,b / 2.34 (0.16)a
5.62 (0.11)c / Wald = 14.64, p = .002
Wald = 62.72, p < .001
(Table continues)
Mothers / Class 1High levels of bonding (45.5%) / Class 2
Low levels of bonding (25.3%) / Class 3
Intermediate levels of bonding (16.3%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (13%) / Significance testing
Contextual factors
Partner support
6 months
24 months / 9.16 (0.12)b,c
9.07 (0.16)b,c /
8.23 (0.24)a
8.17 (0.35)a,b / 8.35 (0.33)a,b
7.78 (0.48)a / 9.38 (0.16)c
9.26 (0.29)c / Wald = 25.42, p < .001
Wald = 16.14, p = .001
Parenting stress / 36.14 (1.05)b / 55.01 (2.46)c / 53.17 (4.58)c / 29.28 (1.32)a / Wald = 123.71, p < .001
Partner variables
Paternal prenatal bonding / 65.56 (0.72)a / 63.00 (0.97)a / 67.95 (1.64)a,b / 70.53 (1.40)b / Wald = 20.21, p < .001
Paternal bonding at 6 months / 76.16 (7.19)a / 73.04 (1.40)a / 77.76 (1.59)a / 83.25 (1.33)c / Wald = 31.51, p < .001
Paternal bonding at 24 months / 75.10 (0.90)b / 69.32 (1.62)a / 75.10 (2.01)b / 82.19 (1.41)c / Wald = 41.96, p < .001
Paternal partner support
6 months
24 months / 8.84 (0.16)
8.90 (0.19) / 8.48 (0.31)
8.35 (0.39) / 8.49 (0.32)
8.38 (0.53) / 9.23 (0.23)
9.36 (0.29) / Wald = 6.63, p = .085
Wald = 7.35, p = .062
Paternal parenting stress / 41.50 (1.78)b / 49.20 (2.99)b / 41.70 (4.13)a,b / 32.86 (1.84)a / Wald = 29.01, p < .001
Paternal attachment style (secure) / 67.2% / 64.1% / 77.9% / 72.1% / Wald = 1.04, p = .79
Temperament 6 months (fathers) / 61.10 (1.46)a,b / 67.01 (2.10)b / 63.58 (3.17)a,b / 56.99 (2.20)a / Wald = 12.81, p = .005
Temperament 24 months (fathers)
Negative affect
Effortful control / 2.62 (0.07)a
4.63 (0.09)a / 2.98 (0.12)b
4.49 (0.10)a / 2.86 (0.19)a,b
4.74 (0.21)a,b / 2.64 (0.12)a,b
5.19 (0.17)b / Wald (3) = 8.38, p = .039
Wald (3) = 12.95, p = .005
Note. Numbers represent means and standard errors (SE) unless otherwise indicated. Means with different subscripts are significantly different at p < .017 (alpha Bonferroni corrected).
Table S2. Parent-, Child-, and Contextual Correlates of Paternal Bonding Patterns From Pregnancy to Toddlerhood
Fathers / Class 1Intermediate levels of bonding (46.9%) / Class 2
High levels of bonding (34.9%) / Class 3
Low levels of bonding (11.5%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (6.7%) / Significance testing
Paternal characteristics
Age / 34.56 (0.43) / 33.16 (0.56) / 34.80 (0.76) / 32.83 (1.28) / Wald (3) = 5.98, p = .11
Education
0–4 years
5–8 years
≥9 years / 3.3%a
20.4%
76.3% / 13.1%a
30.9%
56.0% / 14.7%a,b
18.8%
66.5% / 41.6%b
30.3%
28.1% / Wald (3) = 14.77, p = .002
Wald (3) = 3.05, p = .38
Ethnicity (Dutch) / 83.3% / 83.4% / 73.6% / 67.4% / Wald (3) = 3.20, p = .36
Birth of sibling during study (yes) / 17.4%b / 17.2%b / 16.0%b / 0.0%a / Wald (3) = 21.85, p< .001
Personality
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional stability
Resourcefulness / 4.64 (0.11)a
4.62 (0.12)a
5.70 (0.07)a,b
5.21 (0.09)a
4.96 (0.10) / 5.44 (0.14)b
4.65 (0.14)a
5.90 (0.07)b,c
5.65 (0.10)b
5.24 (0.11) / 4.37 (0.22)a
4.28 (0.26)a
5.21 (0.19)a
5.11 (0.21)a
4.88 (0.21) / 5.43 (0.21)b
5.36 (0.23)b
6.28 (0.17)c
5.70 (0.21)a,b
5.27 (0.24) / Wald (3) = 34.88, p < .001
Wald (3) = 11.76, p = .008
Wald (3) = 25.25, p < .001
Wald (3) = 16.27, p = .001
Wald (3) = 5.55, p = .14
(Table continues)
Fathers / Class 1Intermediate levels of bonding (46.9%) / Class 2
High levels of bonding (34.9%) / Class 3
Low levels of bonding (11.5%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (6.7%) / Significance testing
Prenatal anxiety / 33.07 (0.78)b / 29.17 (0.91)a / 32.45 (1.42)a,b / 30.27 (1.84)a,b / Wald (3) = 11.21, p = .011
Postnatal anxiety
4 months
24 months / 29.54 (0.72)b,c
5.73 (0.29)b / 26.43 (0.82)a
4.82 (0.21)a,b / 34.40 (2.66)c
6.00 (0.55)a,b / 26.43 (2.00)a,b
4.70 (0.28)a / Wald (3) = 16.30, p = .001
Wald (3) = 13.08, p = .005
Attachment style (secure) / 69.3% / 76.0% / 51.9% / 61.2% / Wald (3) = 4.78, p = .19
Child characteristics
Child sex (boy) / 57.5% / 43.1% / 56.4% / 36.1% / Wald (3) = 4.98, p = .17
Gestational age at birth (weeks) / 39.97 (0.13) / 39.68 (0.20) / 39.87 (0.26) / 39.59 (0.47) / Wald (3) = 1.67, p = .64
Birth weight (grams) / 3,503.96 (56.51) / 3,334.63 (65.38) / 3,435.57 (80.13) / 3,349.30 (122.26) / Wald (3) = 3.77, p = .29
Parity (first child) / 49.4% a,b / 63.0% b / 28.7% a / 89.4%b / Wald (3) = 13.09, p = .004
Temperament 6 months
Temperament 24 months
Negative affect
Effortful control / 66.17 (1.24)b
2.86 (0.07)b
4.57 (0.08)a,b / 56.63 (1.67)a
2.51 (0.10)a
4.98 (0.11)c / 70.04 (2.76)b
2.86 (0.16)a,b
4.18 (0.15)a / 51.73 (2.82)a
2.66 (0.13)a,b
5.04 (0.24)b,c / Wald (3) = 45.13, p < .001
Wald (3) = 9.55, p = .023
Wald (3) = 26.96, p < .001
(Table continues)
Fathers / Class 1Intermediate levels of bonding (46.9%) / Class 2
High levels of bonding (34.9%) / Class 3
Low levels of bonding (11.5%) / Class 4
Very high levels of bonding (6.7%) / Significance testing
Contextual factors
Partner support
6 months
24 months / 8.71 (0.15)b
8.64 (0.21)a,b / 9.19 (0.17)b
9.26 (0.18)b / 7.36 (0.44)a
7.51 (0.64)a / 9.15 (0.32)b
8.92 (0.45)a,b / Wald (3) = 19.23, p < .001
Wald (3) = 11.31, p = .010
Parenting stress / 47.50 (1.79)b / 31.14 (1.63)a / 55.23 (4.85)b / 33.66 (2.22)a / Wald (3) = 70.41, p < .001
Partner variables
Maternal prenatal bonding / 75.40 (0.56)b / 76.75 (0.71)b,c / 70.81 (1.50)a / 80.64 (1.56)c / Wald (3) = 25.97, p < .001
Maternal bonding at 6 months / 82.59 (0.62)a,b / 84.10 (0.66)b / 80.14 (1.35)a / 89.51 (1.30)c / Wald (3) = 34.06, p < .001
Maternal bonding at 24 months / 79.51 (0.76)a / 81.82 (1.00)a,b / 79.26 (1.50)a / 86.83 (1.74)b / Wald (3) = 18.81, p < .001
Maternal partner support
6 months
24 months / 9.02 (0.14)b
8.86 (0.17) / 9.03 (0.14)b
8.86 (0.21) / 7.93 (0.35)a
8.18 (0.51) / 9.23 (0.24)b
9.11 (0.35) / Wald (3) = 10.31, p = .016
Wald (3) = 2.40, p = .49
Maternal parenting stress / 42.02 (1.55) / 41.75 (2.21) / 47.10 (2.87) / 38.62 (3.83) / Wald (3) = 3.97, p = .26
Maternal attachment style (secure) / 71.4% / 61.9% / 62.4% / 74.6% / Wald (3) = 1.58, p = .66
Temperament 6 months (mother) / 61.01 (1.44) / 60.02 (1.97) / 68.02 (2.57) / 60.16 (5.03) / Wald (3) = 7.27, p = .064
Temperament 24 months (mother)
Negative affect
Effortful control / 2.64 (0.07)
4.90 (0.08) / 2.55 (0.08)
5.07 (0.11) / 2.82 (0.14)
4.89 (0.15) / 2.59 (0.18)
4.86 (0.22) / Wald (3) = 3.15, p = .37
Wald (3) = 1.72, p = .63
Note. Numbers represent means and standard errors (SE) unless otherwise indicated. Means with different subscripts are significantly different at p < .017 (alpha Bonferroni corrected).