1

Integrating Theory

Running head: INTEGRATING THEORY

Integrating Theory, Research, and Field Experience:

Personal Goals in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Megan McFadden

The College of William and Mary

Abstract

This paper begins with an investigation of four main theoretical camps of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. The four theoretical camps discussed are traditionalists, conceptual empiricists, reconceptualists, and postmodernists. From each camp, influential theorists are explored to give the reader a broad range of ideas and theories currently in the field of education. Next, topics in educational research are explored. Ability grouping and acceleration of at-risk students are examined in hopes of gaining a better understanding of their costs, benefits, and effectiveness. Last, I will analyze three different field experiences consisting of a summer school program, a gifted program, and an ESL program. Throughout the paper, I will reflect on my personal goals for curriculum, instruction, and assessment.

Integrating Theory, Research, and Field Experience: Personal Goals in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Theory, empirical research, and field experience all contribute to shaping educators’ personal teaching goals. It is important to integrate all three in order to be a well-rounded educator, with teaching styles and beliefs that are supported. Learning theories on curriculum, instruction, and assessment will provide a base for teachers’ beliefs to build on. Considering empirical research allows for, among other things, a better understanding of what is currently being investigated, a test of theories that have been proposed and an awareness of the instructional strategies and programs that have proved to be beneficial. Field experience provides the opportunity to observe experienced educators in the field and see their individual style of teaching. While I do believe that theory and research are essential in developing a well-rounded teacher, I believe that field experiences are the most beneficial for novice teachers. This paper first discusses six different theorists and how their theories address contemporary issues in elementary schools. After gaining a base knowledge on multiple educational theories, five empirical studies are analyzed and related specifically to my personal classroom organizational goals. Finally, the paper explores three different field experiences, in three distinct populations, discussing similarities and differences found between each site.

Theory

Throughout history there have been a vast number of educators that have been influential on K-6 curriculum. There are a variety of theories on curriculum, instruction and assessment. This section focuses on four main theoretical camps that categorize theorists and their ideas. The first theoretical camp explored is the traditionalists wherein the concepts of Ralph Tyler and Franklin Bobbitt are evaluated. The next section will focus on conceptual empiricists that have influenced education, especially delving into theoretical concepts of David Berliner. Thirdly, the theories of Michael Apple and Paulo Freire, both of which are reconceptualists, or critical theorists, are presented. Last, is a concentration on the postmodernists, researching the theories of William Doll. In researching all theoretical camps, the paper presents a broad overview of each field allowing for all types of theories to be introduced and investigated.

Theoretical Camps

Traditionalists. The first traditional theorist that is focused on is Ralph Tyler. Tyler plays a role in helping map out a system of developing curriculum. In Tyler (1949) he proposes the idea that schools need to make sure they are asking themselves four specific questions when developing curriculum and instruction methods. These questions consist of (1) asking what the educational goals of the school are, (2) what are the educational activities that can be provided to the students in order to obtain the goals, (3) how can schools effectively organize educational activities and, (4) how can schools assess whether or not the goals were met (Tyler, 1949). In asking these four questions, the curriculum developers should be able to develop detailed curriculum for specific subjects. Tyler (1949) highlights the importance of setting aims that are explicitly described and the fact that in determining objectives, the curriculum maker must make sure to use a multitude of sources for information. One source that he focuses on is using the students themselves to help set goals.

Another influential traditionalist that is important to study is Franklin Bobbitt. He was influential in the late 1800’s writing The Curriculum originally in 1876. Bobbitt’s work centers on finding an effective way for teaching facts. Curriculum must not just be about memorizing facts to use in the practical world, but also teaching our youth about “the enriched mind, quickened appreciations, refined sensibilities, discipline, culture.” (Bobbitt, 1971, p.3). Schools must give children experience at the play level and at the work level. During play students receive an education in physical and social education, allowing for nature to perform its role. Play encourages a child’s curiosity and the opportunity of discovery. Bobbitt (1971) believed that children do not need to know at the time that play is helping them grow and be educated but the teacher “must see the serious ends in order to adjust conditions, to control motives, and to guide” (p.13). The play-level, Bobbitt defines, is all about experiences for the children. It does not involve direct instruction by the teacher by any means. The work-level on the other hand, is a conscious act allowing students to have actual work experience. Students are given activities that give them responsibility.

Bobbitt brought the scientific method to curriculum development. Bobbitt (1971) defined curriculum as “the entire range of experiences, both indirected and directed, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual” (p. 43) or “the series of consciously directed training experiences that the schools use for completing and perfecting the unfoldment.” (p.43). Bobbitt (1971) believes that one developing curriculum should first “aim at those objectives that are not sufficiently attained as a result of the general undirected experience.” (p.44) and then look at the shortcomings of the students “after they have had all that can be given by the undirected training.” (p.45). Bobbitt (1971) states the importance of making sure people developing the curriculum look at the scope of “habits, skills abilities, forms of thought, valuations, ambitions, etc.” (p. 43) that are essential for mastery of the subject: Establishing general goals first and then coming up with objectives of education, stating the abilities hoped to master (Bobbitt, 1924). Before any of this should occur the curriculum-maker should determine what results are to be produced (Bobbitt, 1924).

Tyler and Bobbitt’s work have helped develop a method for making curriculum in our K-6 classrooms. Having clear objectives will help students know what they are supposed to be learning and will help teachers have direction in their teaching. Currently our educational system is set up around standardized testing. This can be problematic for teachers formulating their objectives because they are given the objectives that they must teach their students to pass the tests, rather than developing them on their own based on their given classes. Setting up clear objectives in the elementary school classroom, which both Tyler and Bobbitt stress, is important because there are certain things we want the children to learn by the end of the year and setting the objectives will help to achieve that goal. Bobbitt’s idea of using play as part of education is especially important in grades K-6. Children, through play, can explore, discover, and learn on their own. The social aspect of play is extremely important. It allows students to interact with each other, learning cooperative skills and social norms.

The development of objectives in formulating curriculum has benefits in today’s classroom. Being clear on what should be learned and setting goals is essential due to vast range of students in a given class. Inclusion programs give teachers such a range of students that it is important to be able to set clear objectives for the class and individual students. Many special education students have individualized educational programs (IEPs), which show the significant impact traditional theorists have made in using the scientific method for developing objectives and curriculum.

Conceptual Empiricists. Traditional theorists look at ways of developing curriculum. Conceptual Empiricists engage in research. David Berliner finds the importance of developing a general theory about the development of expertise that can be translated into the teacher education community (Berliner, 1988). In one of his areas of interest, Berliner looks at a theory of skill learning that is based on Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus (Berliner, 1988). He takes this theory and engages in multiple research studies to see if he can apply this theory to teacher education. This particular theory looks at the different levels of skill development starting with novices and ending with experts. In Berliner (1988) he looked at novice, postulant, and expert teachers concluding that the three groups responded very differently to given classroom situations, having “qualitative differences.” (p. 20). Based on his research and the developmental model he “inquired whether interesting policy considerations can be formulated.” (Berliner, 1988, p. 20). He suggests that postulant teachers should have support once they are in the classroom and that maybe novice teachers should gain experience before they are taught pedagogical theory. The focus, therefore, should be on giving them informative manuals and scripts to help them with their lessons (Berliner, 1988). To Berliner, practicing routines is more beneficial to novice teachers than theoretical knowledge, which he expresses is also important.

Berliner’s point in his research is that there are differences between novice and expert teachers and he discovered this by conducting research. Through his research he is “suggesting that our extensive knowledge base about teaching and teachers be thought of as more or less appropriate to people in different stages of their development.” (Berliner, 1988, p. 27). Berliner’s work shows the importance of conducting research to develop theories and methods about education.

As a novice teacher about to go into the classroom I find this type of research extremely important. Conducting research gives educators new knowledge and the more we can learn, the more we will be prepared for the classroom. The research he conducted provides information for teacher educators on what might be most beneficial to novice teachers (e.g. practice in the classroom and providing scripts). In our current society we have a focus on achievement in schools not only for students but also for teachers. Novice teachers tend to be placed in more challenging classrooms their first year and if there is such an emphasis on high achievement of students then it is necessary to equip teachers with helpful training and practice (Graziano, 2005, p. 32). Conceptual empiricist’s engaging in research will help us understand and develop theories on contemporary challenges, such as violence. Studies have been conducted, revealing that, “violent behavior occurs most often in the public places in the school that are ‘unowned’ and relatively unsupervised.” (Lemlech, 2006, p. 14). Research is useful for today’s schools because it allows for a better understanding issues that schools are facing.

Reconceptualists. Reconceptualists find it important to critique present curriculum and instruction methods. Michael Apple, a contemporary theorist, believes that education is not a neutral act but a political one. Apple believes that we must critically examine our school system and how certain aspects of our culture are taught in schools. He explains that schools should be seen as institutions and that there is a cycle of schools recreating inequalities among certain groups (Apple, 1979). As Apple (1979) states in his book Ideology and Curriculum in talking about commitments of educators and school institutions as a whole, he states that, “it requires the progressive articulation of and commitment to a social order that has at its very foundation not the accumulation of goods, profits, and credentials, but the maximization of economic, social, and educational equality.” (p. 11). The idea of equality and social justice is inherent to Paulo Freire’s ideas on education. Our schools as institutions tend to promote certain dominating groups (i.e. socioeconomic, ethnic, etc.) in our society to stay dominant. Apple argues that it is critical for the education system to verge away from this idea of advancing the already advanced and focus its attention on the least advantaged in our society (Apple, 1979). Apple (1979) thinks that we should look at the “hidden curriculum” (values, beliefs, etc.) in education critically but also why this particular “hidden curriculum” exists. Apple (1979) takes an active approach to evaluating the institutions of schools and believes that the definition of educators should be “one which is rooted…in the definition of an organic intellectual whose understanding and action are joined by active involvement against hegemony.” (p. 25).

Along with Apple, Freire centers his work on social injustice. People should always critically reflect on our educational programs and what they mean. In our society we have the right to criticize constructively and accept criticism but we must never lie in our critiques (Freire, 1998). Freire (1998) stresses that “…a neutral, uncommitted, and apolitical educational practice does not exist.” (p. 39). We, as educators, must acknowledge education’s political nature and respect that our students may not have our same viewpoints. Teachers also have the right to be respected (Freire, 1998). Classrooms should be places where students and teacher respect each other’s thoughts and fears. Freire suggests that there are some obstacles that go along with the classroom and education in general. One obstacle that can occur is when the educator never acts as the facilitator and does not challenge the students. Another challenge is when educators are unaware of the “popular” language of their students because they will be less effective and have trouble communicating with them (Freire, 1998). Educators must make themselves aware of the students they are teaching and the backgrounds that these students are coming from.

This idea of critiquing curriculum that is already being used is essential in the development of good teachers. Educators should always be trying to improve and develop new skills, and through reflective and critical thought, they can achieve this. In the United States, there are people from a wide range of backgrounds and with this vast diversity in many areas of our country educators must embrace and respect the differences of our students. Along with this though, is our duty to try and help our students coming from less affluent areas so each one of our students has an equal opportunity to succeed. Poverty is a serious issue in today’s schools and it is growing (Lemlech, 2006). Lemlech (2006) states, “Poor children lack resource tools in their homes and parental involvement…and suffer from hunger and disease. All of these conditions affect achievement.” (p. 13). Reconceptualists believe it is the teacher’s responsibility to help these students. In looking at Apple’s thoughts on “hidden curriculum” it is also important to remember that in our society different groups have “hidden rules” [i.e. “unspoken cueing system that individuals use to indicate membership in a group.” (Payne, 1996, p. 71)] that shape the way they learn in classrooms. At the elementary school level it is essential for teachers to recognize this and help their students learn the hidden rules of the school environment so they can have an equal chance of success (Payne, 1996).