9. Comparisons of signing and nonsigning apes
Chapter 9
Comparisons of signing and nonsigning apes
David Dwyer, Michigan State University
February 3, 2011
Most of the material in this chapter, but not all, is given chapters 6 and 8 and should be incorporated there. Alternatively, this chapter could be the major data chapter which brings in all aspects of behavior.This paper is a working draft. Comments are welcome. Do not quote without permission.
Introduction
This essay examines the differences between the behavior of feral, captive and signing apes to see whether the capacity to interact symbolically with others has modified the general behavior of apes represented by their feral counterparts. In this regard, there are three possibilities: (1) symbolic interaction does not modify the behavior; (2) symbolic interaction does modify the behavior; and (3) symbolic interaction actually enables a behavior not present in feral and captive apes.
There is a tendency to regard the social behavior of feral primates as primarily genetically determined, however, the field work of Sapolsky (2005) shows that the behavior of both monkeys and apes can be substantially modified when environmental conditions change. Sapolsky’s observations force us to consider the observed behavior of feral behavior to be far more fluid and adaptable than we generally suppose and that their social practices reflect a good deal of social pragmatics – as opposed to sociobiology. Nevertheless, the behavior of feral offers a starting point from which to access the degree to which cross fostering and signing can affect the behavior of these apes.
Knowledge
I am concerned with two types of knowledge objective knowledge and subjective knowledge. Objective knowledge has to do with what the other knows or does not know. One may discover that s/he knows something that the other does not know. Objective knowledge may take the form of doing or knowing. Learning to do something, or acquiring knowledge. The next two sections are concerned with both evidence that they possess knowledge, that that they can infer knowledge from examining a situation, and the ability to express that.
Part I: Objective knowledge
Factual Knowledge
In the following examples, signing may not enable knowledge, but it does make it possible to understand what Washoe understands.
Feral and Captive Apes / Signing apes[Goodall and de Walle give ample examples that feral and captive chimps know of places and facts. / 1. Roger: What in your stomach? Washoe: BABY BABY” (215).
2. Roger’s pointed to his six-year old daughter and asked who she was. “Without hesitating, Washoe signed ROGER DEBBI BABY” (269).
3. There are a lot more examples of both signing and nonsigning apes.
Sense of time
On level of awareness of time involves planning a future event. Feral apes as well as captive apes do this on a regular basis. Goodall’s story of Figan, Goliath and the banana illustrates that feral apes can plan future events as well. This is illustrated by the playing of tricks by all three categories of apes.
At a second level, Berger and Luckmann (1967) speak of language linking the individual to other spaces and times. Many of the episodes focus on the chimpanzee, Tatu (1-3), who clearly aware of the daily and yearly cycle. The bonobo Nyota used the word YESTERDAY and TOMORROW. Kanzi and Panbanisha understand these words but did not use them.
Closely related to the ability to connect different times is the concept of having to wait. In the world of captive and signing apes, this involves having to wait for meals in particular. In an intersubjective world, that is a world of sharing knowledge and understanding with others, it is often necessary to wait.
Feral and captive Apes / Signing apesNo examples / Only Nyota uses ‘yesterday’ and ‘today’, but Kanzi and Panbanisha readily grasp their meaning. SR al n.d
Tatu who had a good sense of time, and knew that Christmas (CANDY TREE) followed Thanksgiving. F301
Tatu knew after Debbi’s birth day that Dar’s was the next day” F301
Tatu knew when it was time for the next meal and if it didn’t appear to be on schedule she would sign TIME EAT. F301
When Tatu was told that she couldn’t eat, she signed HURRY HURRY CLEAN ROOM.
Words / hurry(A), time/when(W), time(K), finish(KN), again(W), yesterday (Ny), today (Ny), when(W)
Question of awareness of death
Two issues concern the topic of death. The first is the awareness of the meaning of death and the second is the awareness of one’s own mortality. Feral apes go into a deep depression at the loss of their mother and mothers often do the same at the loss of their child. Washoe understood not only the loss of her own baby but of Kat’s as well. There are no examples of apes in any of these categories being aware of their own demise.
Feral and captive Apes / Signing apesFeral ape mothers often carry their several months after they die. / Fouts tells Washoe here baby died.(F292)
Words: dead (Fouts signs to Washoe)
Acquiring knowledge through signs
Part II: Subjective knowledge
Subjective knowledge concerns information relevant to the other including an understanding of what the other intends, how the other feels ,what the other knows, and the perspective of the other. In feral apes, this knowledge of the other comes from visual observation (and inference).
Intentions
In feral apes, intentions are often announced by facial, bodily, and vocal gestures, and often involve a combination, such as a whimper being accompanied by a pout. Nonthreatening gestures include a smile or a hand out. A male threatening anger involves standing with hair bristling. A gaze at something means interest in the object which will attract the interest of others. [I need a wider range of examples]… Thus feral apes can read the intentions of others.
Feral and captive Apes / Signing apesExamples of learning through signs
Feral and Captive Apes / Signing apes1. Feral chimpanzees learn to build nests and fish for termites by imitating their mothers. / 2. Loulis learns by imitating Washoe [mother]. F246b
3. No examples of teaching / 4. Washoe molds Loulis’ hand into the sign for food. ( F243)
5. Lucy teaches pet cat to use the toilet.
In the case of knowing something, we may expect that this may lead to either continued secrecy because it provides an advantage or to informing the other of this knowledge (teaching). Subjective knowledge has to do with understanding the other subject’s perspective. Empathy is a form of subjective knowledge which has to do with understanding the feelings of the other. Subjective knowledge can also involve understanding the position the other is in, bor example if s/he is in danger.
With respect to objective knowledge apes have demonstrated that they can understand that they possess knowledge that the other does not. (2 episodes of Figan), with respect to secrecy and informing
Both feral and captive apes have shown that they can understand the situation in which the other is in, especially when food or danger is involved. The examples from the bonobo Panbanisha concern situations in which she is aware of something the other does not know and is able and interested in telling the other about it.
Examples of secrecy
Feral / Captive / SigningChimpanzees maintain silence when on patrol
Figan knows that Goliath does not know about the nearby banana.
Figan knows that the pack does not know about the bananas. / The great chimpanzee breakout / Lucy hides keys and things in her mouth.
Examples of informing
Feral / Captive / Signing1. Chimpanzees maintain silence when on patrol / 2. The chimpanzee who warns the keeper about flooding of the moat. / 3. Washoe warns Booee (?) about the snake.
4. When Washoe understands that Booee does not understand sign language and takes Booee by the hand and leads him to safety.
5. Washoe molds Loulis’ hand to help him learn a sign.
6. Panbanisha tells Bill something using a keyboard. SR al n.d.
7. Panbanisha tells Bill he needs his glasses. SR al n.d.
8. Panbanisha tells Bill the keyboard is off SR al n.d.
9. Panbanisha tells Bill he has forgotten Mari SR al n.d.
10. Panbanisha tells Sue what nonsigning Matata is talking about. SR al n.d
11. Nyota realizes that Bill does not know about the blueberry agreement and tells him to call Sue who does.
The evidence from signing apes, both Chimpanzees (Washoe) and Bonobos (Panbanisha and Nyota), is substantial The only example of teaching involves Washoe teaching Loulis to make the sign for food by molding his hand in the desired shape. Feral chimpanzees have not been observed to teach, rather feral children learn to build nest, fish for termites, make tools, etc by imitating their mothers.
Activity / Signing ApesDetecting Suffering / 1. Even before she learned to sign, Lucy had the ability to detect the feelings of others. F??
Expressing Sorrow / 2. If Loulis began to cry, Washoe would rush over to retrieve her son while she signed SORRY SORRY and HUG HUG. F247
3. Washoe signed CRY to Kat after learning of her miscarriage. F291
4. Washoe and Roger’s broken arm. Need text.
Words: sorry (WK),
Empathy and Comfort
Providing comfort begins with the ability to detect distress in others.
Young adults continue to run to their mothers when in need of comfort (Gxx) and chimpanzees often seek comfort after a fight or a run in with another chimpanzee.
Although Chimpanzees can provide comfort and help to others, they can also be cruel and mean, especially to others who appear weak and vulnerable. When alpha males go into a rage, they are capable of destroying anything and anyone in their path. One such example (G153) involved Goblin who was in Mike’s path. In this case, Goblin’s mother, Flo, entered into Mike’s path and distracted Mike long enough for Goblin to escape, although Flo suffered a number of injuries. Fouts provides two examples of captive chimpanzees being fiercely attacked by the group because they lacked “the necessary social skills.”
Feral / Captive / Signing1. A male going on a rampage (e.g., Mike’s attack on Goblin ( Gd153 / 2. Burris was raised in isolation from chimps and humans didn’t have the necessary social skills (e.g., grooming). Consequently when put with other male they beat him up.F181-2
3. Story of Cindy also did not develop affiliative skills and would be tormented by other chimps. F??
But chimpanzees also provide comfort to others using the affiliational activities described above. To provide comfort one has to recognize the need in others. Fouts (151) notes that “even before she had learned American Sign Language, she “could read the moods of others (2).
Feral Apes / Captive Apes / Signing Apes1. Huxley holds Goblin until Melissa [mother] returns. Gd153 / 2. “even before she had learned American Sign Language, she “could read the moods of others F151.
3. When Lucy sensed that someone was distressed she would put her arm around them and kiss them” (151).
4. When Lucy she detected anger between two people she would separate them by distracting one of them F155 / 5. After nearly drowning, Penny is groomed by Washoe and Roger.
6. Washoe seeks out and comforting those who were sad or hurt… F14a
7. Washoe, in labor asks for hug to R. F227
8. Dar asks Washoe for hugs. F 300b
9. Washoe wouldn’t let Kat go. PLEASE PERSON HUG, she signed. 291
10. “Washoe signs COME HUG to Cindy to give comfort F??
In contrast, Cheney and Seyfarth suggest that feral chimpanzees do not do this, while “chimpanzees feel grief (237) they show little empathy for each other (254) even though Goodall gives a number of examples of providing comfort. DeWaal also provides examples of feral and captive chimpanzees giving comfort to one another after a fight.. Silk et al (2006) who worked with captive chimpanzees in a food-sharing experiment also concludes that chimpanzees do not have compassion for other chimpanzees, though this experiment involved pairs of unrelated chimpanzees.[1] However, in contrast to this view, Goodall and DeWaal provide a number of observations in which comfort is given. First there is the example of Huxley holding Goblin until his mother, Melissa, returns. And de Waal reports an instance of an unrelated feral male adopting an orphan and that it is common chimpanzees do look out for injured companions. DeWaal also provides numerous Fouts reports that even before she had learned American Sign Language, she “could read the moods of others (Fouts:151) and that "When Lucy sensed that someone was distressed she would put her arm around them and kiss them” (151).
Helping others
In addition to providing comfort, there are numerous examples of chimpanzees coming to the aid of others. For example, Goodall reports (1986:153) that Huxley, a male, held Goblin when the alpha pale Mike was on a rampage until his mother, Melissa, returns. And de Waal reports an instance of an unrelated male adopting an orphan and that it is common chimpanzees do look out for injured companions. De Waal also mentions that it was common for feral chimps to protect an ailing troop member and gives an example of captive chimpanzees caring for a member that was frequently disoriented.
In some cases this help is collective such as the protection of Roosje (7) and of Washoe (9). In some cases, the situation involves an assessment of a real danger to the other and in the case of Washoe, risking her own life.
Feral / Captive / Signing1. Chimps look out for injured companion is common. DW28
2. Adult chimp male who adopts unrelated orphan. DW28
3. Females will gang up on an alpha male who has gotten out of hand (DW) / 4. Loretta helps Vernon escape. DW 182.
5. Kakowet warns keepers of trapped bonobos DW182
6. Binta Jua rescues 3-year old human. DW 2005:3
7. Chimp band protect infant Roosje. DW26-7
8. Jackie (chimp) helps Krom (his aunt) DW 183
9. Group protects Washoe from Pan: F129
10. Chimp band look out for Kidogo. DW170
11. Numerous examples of adoption by mothers. DW?? / 12. Washoe breaks up fight between Booee and Bruno F32.
13. Washoe risks life to save Bruno from snake. F135
14. Washoe makes Greg apologize to Roger Fouts. F63
15. Washoe risks life to save Penny from drowning. F80
Deception