Chapter 11: More on Purpose, Tone and Bias
PURPOSE IN WRITING AND 3 TYPES OF WRITING:
1. NARRATIVE
2. INFORMATIVE/EXPOSITORY
3. PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATIVE
NARRATIVE- WRITING THAT FOCUSES ON TELLING A STORY. IT RELIES ON CHRONOLOGICAL PATTERN OF ORGANIZATION (BEGINNING, MIDDLE, END), AND IT HAS A PLOT
EX: “A STORY OF AN HOUR”
EX.3: “WITH THEIR EYES THAT GLEAM IN THE DARK LIKE TWO FLASHLIGHTS, CATS CAN SEE WELL IN THE DARK.”
INFORMATIVE/EXPOSITORY WRITING
· FOCUSES ON INFORMING THE READER OF SOME FACTS ABOUT A TOPIC
· AVOIDS PERSONAL VIEWPOINT, JUDGMENT OR PREFERENCE
· STATES FACTS OR DESCRIBES THE OPINIONS OF OTHERS WITHOUT REVEALING A PERSONAL POINT OF VIEW
· OFTEN GIVES BOTH SIDES OF AN ISSUE WITHOUT TAKING SIDES
PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING
· TRIES TO CONVINCE THE READER TO SIDE WITH THE AUTHOR’S POINT OF VIEW
· TAKES SIDES ON AN ISSUE OR SUBJECT AND PROVIDES FACTS THAT SUPPORT THAT VIEW
Ex. 1: Identifying the Main Idea and Primary Purpose (626)
FIRST STEP TO BECOMING A CRITICAL READER: DISTINGUISHING FACTS VS. OPINIONS
FACTS
· STATEMENTS (ABOUT PEOPLE, PLACE, THING, OR IDEA) THAT CAN BE VERIFIED AS EITHER TRUE OR FALSE, ACCURATE OR INACCURATE, RIGHT OR WRONG
· DOES NOT INVOLVE ANY EMOTIONS, VALUE JUDGMENTS OR PERSONAL PREFERENCES
· USE DENOTATIVE (NEUTRAL, NOT TAKING ANY SIDES) LANGUAGE AND STAYS AWAY FROM CONNOTATIVE (EMOTIONALLY LOADED, EITHER NEGATIVE OR POSITIVE) WORDS
· ARE NOT INFLUENCED BY WRITER’S PERSONALITY, BACKGROUND, OR BELIEFS
· FREQUENTLY USE NUMBERS, STATISTICS, DATES, AND MEASUREMENTS
· NAME AND DESCRIBE BUT DO NOT EVALUATE OR INTERPRETE.
· TAKES ON AN OBJECTIVE TONE (ATTITUDE) TOWARD THE TOPIC
EXAMPLES OF STATEMENTS OF FACTS:
1. THE FINAL EXAM WILL BE HELD ON THURSDAY, JULY 12 IN ROOM 215.
2. MISSION COLLEGE WILL OFFER DEVELOPMENTAL COMMUNICATIONS 36A (DC 36A) IN THE FALL.
3. RAPPER SNOOP DOGG’S REAL NAME IS CALVIN BROADUS.
4. MOST HUMAN CELLS CONTAIN FORTY-SIX CHROMOSOMES ARRANGED IN TWENTY-THREE MATCHING PARTS.
5. WORLD WAR II ENDED IN 1960.
6. MARCO IS MONOLINGUAL.
7. DIANA IS FLUENT IN CHINESE.
OPINIONS
· STATEMENTS (CONCERNING PEOPLE, PLACE, THING OR IDEA) THAT INVOLVE INTERPRETATION, INFERENCE, VALUE JUDGMENT OR PERSONAL PREFERENCE
· CANNOT BE PROVEN AS TRUE OR FALSE; ACCURATE OR INACCURATE; RATHER, OPINIONS ARE EITHER VALID OR INVALID, INFORMED OR UNINFORMED, REASONABLE OR UNREASONABLE BASED ON THE STRENGTH OF THE SUPPORTING EVIDENCE (“EVERYONE IS ENTITLED TO THEIR OWN OPINION BUT NOT ALL OPINIONS ARE EQUALLY VALID.”)
· ARE SHAPED BY THE AUTHOR’S BACKGROUND, PERSONALITY, BELIEF, AND TRAINING
· RELY ON CONNOTATIVE LANGUAGE THAT RESULTS IN EMOTIONAL TONE
· OFTEN MAKE VALUE JUDGMENTS SUGGESTING THAT SOMETHING (WHETHER AN EVENT, PERSON, OR IDEA) IS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
· FREQUENTLY EXPRESS COMPARISONS USING WORDS SUCH AS MORE, BETTER, MOST, LEAST, AND SHOULD
EXAMPLES OF STATEMENTS OF OPINIONS:
1. RACIST STATEMENTS SHOULD NOT BE CONSIDERED A FORM OF FREE SPEECH.
2. IT WAS TOO BAD THAT ELVIS PRESLEY DIED SO YOUNG.
3. HOME SHOPPING NETWORKS ENCOURAGE VIEWERS TO ENGAGE IN MINDLESS CONSUMERISM.
4. DC 36A IS BORING AND HAS TOO MUCH HOMEWORK.
5. GEORGE W. IS A DISGRACE TO THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND OUGHT TO BE IMPEACHED.
Ex. 2: Labeling Facts and Opinions (636)
Ex. 3: Recognizing Opinions in Factual Statements (639)
Ex. 4: Drawing Conclusions About the Author (640)
TONE- IS THE AUTHOR’S ATTITUDE TOWARD THE SUBJECT MATTER UNDER DISCUSSION. WHEN THE AUTHOR ONLY USES DENOTATIVE LANGUAGE AND FACTS, WE SAY THAT THE AUTHOR’S TONE IS OBJECTIVE OR NEUTRAL. IN CONTRAST, IN STATEMENTS OF OPINIONS, AUTHORS’ TONE TOWARD THE SUBJECT MATTER UNDER DISCUSSION IS SUBJECTIVE, THAT IS, EITHER NEGATIVE OR POSITIVE.
SOME EXAMPLES OF COMMON ADJECTIVES THAT DESCRIBE TONE:
ADMIRING OBJECTIVE
AMAZED PASSIONATE
ANGRY REGRETFUL
AMBIVALENT RESPECTFUL
CRITICAL SKEPTICAL
COMICAL MOCKING
DISGUSTED SYMPATHETIC
ENTHUSIASTIC SOLEMN
Evaluating BIAS in Persuasive Writing
· WHEN THE AUTHOR SHOWS FAVORITISM TOWARD A PARTICULAR POINT OF VIEW OR SUBJECT MATTER
· INFORMATIVE WRITING SHOULD NOT CONTAIN ANY BIAS
· IN PERSUASIVE WRITING, BIAS IS ACCEPTABLE (TAKING SIDES); HOWEVER, THE BIAS IS UNACCEPTABLE IF IT IS UNFAIR—THAT IS, 1. IF THE AUTHOR DOES NOT PRESENT AN OPPOSING POINT OF VIEW, OR 2. THE AUTHOR CONSCIOUSLY MISREPRESENTS OPPOSING OPINIONS
EX. 5: Recognizing Excessive Bias (P.650)
FIVE TYPES OF WEAK ARGUMENTS TO SUPPORT AN OPINION IN PERSUASIVE WRITING:
1. HASTY GENERALIZATIONS: WHEN THE AUTHOR TRIES TO PROVE A BROAD GENERALIZATION (ABOUT PEOPLE, SITUATION, EVENT, OR IDEA) WITHOUT PROVIDING THE READER WITH ENOUGH SPECIFIC AND CONVINCING EXAMPLES.
EX. 1: “COLLEGE EDUCATION IS USELESS AND UNNECESSARY. BILL GATES HAS NO COLLEGE DEGREE AND YET HE’S ONE OF THE RICHEST MEN ALIVE.”
EX. 2: “WOMEN ONLY CARE ABOUT MONEY. TAKE MY EX-GIRLFRIEND FOR INSTANCE: SHE LEFT ME AS SOON AS I WAS LAID OFF.”
2. IRRELEVANT EVIDENCE: WHEN THE AUTHOR TRIES TO SUPPORT HIS OPINION BY INTRODUCING UNRELATED, OFF-TOPIC DETAILS OR FACTS, OR BY MAKING PERSONAL ATTACKS.
EX 1: “BILL CLINTON WAS A TERRIBLE PRESIDENT BECAUSE HE CHEATED ON HIS WIFE.”
EX 2: MISSION COLLEGE HAS A BEAUTIFUL CAMPUS WITH A NICE WATER FOUNTAIN IN FRONT OF THE LIBRARY; THEREFORE, IT OFFERS A GREAT EDUCATION AT A BARGAIN PRICE.”
3. CIRCULAR REASONING- WHEN THE AUTHOR TRIES TO SUPPORT HIS OPINION ON A SUBJECT SIMPLY BY REPEATING THAT OPINION AND OFFERING NO SUPPORTING EVIDENCE TO PROVE THAT HIS OPINION IS REASONABLE.
EX. 1: “ABORTION SHOULD BE ILLEGAL. IT IS NOT RIGHT THAT SO MANY WOMEN ARE HAVING ABORTIONS. IF ABORTIONS WERE BANNED, WE WOULD SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF SO MANY WOMEN RUNNING TO ABORTION CLINICS.”
EX. 2: “COLLEGE EDUCATION SHOULD BE MANDATORY. IT MAKES NO SENSE THAT SO MANY HIGHSCHOOL GRADUATES ARE NOT EVEN CONSIDERING GOING ON TO COLLEGE. IF THERE IS A LAW THAT MAKES IT ILLEGAL NOT TO ATTEND COLLEGE, WE WOULD HAVE A HEALTHY COLLEGE ENROLLMENT.”
4. OFFERING FALSE ALTERNATIVES- WHEN THE AUTHOR GIVES THE READER THE (FALSE) IMPRESSION THAT THERE ARE ONLY X-NUMBER OF POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES OR ANSWERS TO A PROBLEM OR QUESTION WHEN, IN FACT, THERE MAY BE MORE.
EX 1: “BECAUSE IRAQ HAS WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION, OUR ONLY CHOICE TO PROTECT OUR WONDERFUL COUNTRY IS TO INVADE IRAQ.”
EX. 2: “IF YOU DON’T GO TO COLLEGE, YOU WILL EITHER BECOME HOMELESS AND JOBLESS OR FLIP BURGERS AT MC DONALDS.”
EX. 3: “WHEN DECIDING UPON A 4-YEAR UNIVERSITY TO TRANSFER TO, YOU HAVE THREE OPTIONS: USC, UCLA, OR CSUN.”
5. MAKING CARELESS COMPARISONS- WHEN THE AUTHOR TRIES TO POINT OUT THE SIMILARITIES OF TWO THINGS/PEOPLE/ISSUES WHILE IGNORING THE MASSIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO.
EX. 1: “WHEN MY MOM GAVE BIRTH TO ME AT THE HOSPITAL, SHE CRIED LIKE A BABOON.”
EX. 2: “GEORGE W. BUSH IS A DEVIL.”
EX. 3: “CELEBRITIES SUCH AS TOM CRUISE, TIGER WOODS AND CATHERINE ZETA JONES WHO SELL THEIR IMAGES ON FILMS, COMMERCIALS AND ADS ARE NO DIFFERENT FROM COMMON PROSTITUTES WHO SELL THEIR BODIES FOR PROFIT.”
EXERCISE 6: Recognizing Faulty Logic (662)
EXERCISE 7: Recognizing Faulty Logic (665)
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