APUSH PERIOD FOUR(1800-1848) KEY CONCEPTS REVIEW
By Robert James, Ph.D.
Key Concept 4.1The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation’s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.
I. The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.
A)In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
A) cont. / * Jeffersonians were dedicated to reducing the powers of the federal government (allowed Alien and Sedition Acts and Bank of the United States to lapse; returned Naturalization to five year wait; removed forty of Federalist “midnight appointments”; abolished all internal taxes, including the dreaded Whiskey (Rebellion) tax; reduced size of army; Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin lowered national debt in half, cut ties with Hamiltonian elites)
* Jeffersonians, somewhat hypocritically, expanded the power of the federal government through the disaster of the Embargo Act of 1807, and the smashing success of the Louisiana Purchase (which then drove the Federalists in New England and New York to ponder secession in the Essex Junto of 1804, which led to Aaron Burr joining them, and then dueling with Alexander Hamilton – got milk? – Federalists saw their power seriously threatened by new states in West and South that would almost certainly be Jeffersonian)
* Jefferson was pro-French, until issue of New Orleans being blocked arose (Louisiana Purchase resolved this problem)
* Embargo Act, then Non-Intercourse Act, tried to ban and/or limit trade with Britain and France to try and stop them from interfering with American trade, as well as British impressment
* War of 1812 deeply opposed by Federalists, who wanted to keep trading with Britain, and definitely did NOT want war, despite interference with trade and impressment; Jeffersonian War Hawks (like Henry Clay) were westerners who wanted the war to go grab Canada, kill western Indians (Tecumseh and his brother Temskwatawa), and grab Florida (voting records show it was a “western war with eastern labels”)
* Federalists blocked the War of 1812 in any way possible – refused to make loans to the government, refused to commit militias, refused to support tariffs to finance war, even celebrated British victories
* Hartford Convention of 1814 toyed with secession, but instead proposed limiting the powers of the federal government (one term presidency, 60-day limit to trade embargoes, 2/3 vote to declare war, prohibit trade, or admit new states); Jackson’s victory in New Orleans, and end of war, made them seem traitors
* Hamiltonian idea of protective tariff resurrected by Henry Clay in the aftermath of War of 1812; Tariff of 1816 (textiles)
* Second Bank of the United States created in 1816 by Henry Clay and James Madison because they’d realized that without a national bank, federal government couldn’t run a war or economy effectively (Federalists ran the biggest state banks)
* Clay proposed internal improvements to expand infrastructure, but Madison vetoed Bonus Bill on a strict interpretation, and suggested a constitutional amendment to allow them
B)Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws. / * Marbury v. Madison(1803) established the principle of judicial review over presidential or congressional actions (judicial review over states already established, but Marbury firmed up the right) (next use on a federal level: 54 years later in the Dred Scott decision, in Period 5)
* Fletcher v. Peck (1810) ruled that states could not overturn contracts previously agreed to (limits state power, protects investors from other states , encouraged investment from one state to another in a national economy)
* Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) refused to allow New Hampshire to overturn charter for Dartmouth, to turn it into public university (a contract is a contract)
* McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) denied the state of Maryland the right to tax a national institution (affirmed supremacy of national government; affirmed loose construction of the Constitution as the correct one, not the strict interpretation Maryland wanted)
C)By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose — the Democrats, led, by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay — that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
C) cont.
C) cont. / * Federalists collapse after War of 1812, but Republicans split into two groups: the Jeffersonians morphed into the Democratic-Republicans, which eventually become the Democrats, and the Nationalist Republicans, which eventually become the Whigs
* Nationalist Republicans adopted many of the Federalist positions, with Henry Clay and his American System (national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements) being very Hamiltonian; Whigs stood on the concept of a meritocracy, the self-made man of Franklin, the man of talent rising
* “Corrupt Bargain” of 1824 drove a wedge between supporters of John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson (and turned Henry Clay into a widely reviled figure for a certain segment of the population, because it was believed he had sold the presidency to become Secretary of State, the then-traditional stepping stone)
* Jacksonian Democrats stood for the common man (as long as he was white), hostility to banks and federal power (usually), as well as against Henry Clay and his American System; Democrats tended to be pro-slave and states’ rights until Free Soil took hold
* Second Party System fully emerged in 1834 over hostility towards “King Andrew”: Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun organized the Whig Party
* Tariff issues drove much of their disagreements: 1824 tariff had raised protections on textiles above 1816 tariffs, but the 1828 tariff (promoted by Jacksonians so Jackson could win some New England and northern votes in 1828 election) became a trigger event, as South Carolina called it the Tariff of Abominations, because they bought British goods and thus paid a bigger chunk of taxes; South Carolina proceeded to threaten secession and declared the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and refused to allow collection of duties. John C. Calhoun resurrected Jefferson’s states’ rights position from the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
* The Nullification Crisis exploded on the national scene, when SC and Calhoun claimed the right to secede if other states didn’t support their right to nullify a federal law (SC refused to collect the tariffs on incoming goods); the Webster-Payne Debate of 1830 pitched the nationalist Daniel Webster (“Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!”) against Calhoun’s stand-in, Robert Payne; Jackson declared South Carolina to be in violation of the Constitution, and threatened to invade with the Force Bill; at the same time, he and Clay worked out a deal to lower the tariff; SC backed down, because no other states came out to support them (thirty years later, in Period 5, the entire South would follow them when they seceded)
* Prior to the 1832 election, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were looking for a campaign issue to attack Jackson over, and chose to push Nicholas Biddle to ask for an early recharter of the Second Bank of the United States (not due to expire until 1836; Clay and Webster badly underestimated popular support for the Bank, which was widely hated, as were most banks); Jackson, as expected, vetoed it; Clay then ran on that issue, accusing Jackson of inappropriate use of veto power; Jackson then ran to a landslide attacking the Bank as an instrument of “special privilege” that served the rich; after winning re-election, Jackson claimed he had a mandate to destroy the Bank, and he proceeded to pull all federal funds out of the national bank, depositing them instead in the state banks (known as “pet banks”), which were far less careful with their practices; the “pet banks” helped contribute to the Panic of 1837 by destabilizing the national economy and letting state banks be irresponsible
* Henry Clay’s endorsement of federally funded internal improvements was halted by Andrew Jackson vetoing the extension of the National Road into Clay’s home state of Kentucky; Jackson vetoed it claiming it was entirely in one state, but the so-called Maysville Road Veto was more than likely a personal attack on Clay than a constitutional stand (after Jackson successfully brought the national debt to ZERO, Clay talked him into releasing the federal surpluses to the states for the purposes of internal improvements, which created a canal- and road-building boom that contributed to the Panic of 1837 by spurring inflation) [Jackson hated Clay, and Clay’s American System, and effectively destroyed all three parts of it]
* Jackson instituted a new trend towards what would become the “spoils system” by using government jobs as political rewards; while Jackson himself didn’t fire competent government appointees, his successors would shortly fire everybody they could and hand out the jobs as political plums, thus building up power of political machines
* 1840 election saw Whig party trying to capitalize on resentments over Panic of 1837 to destroy Martin Van Buren’s chances of re-election [“Martin Van Ruin” / “Van, Van, Van is a used up man”](Whigs chose a Jackson clone and ran a very populist style election – “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” to win, only to see Harrison die a month in; Democrat John Tyler was on the ticket as an anti-Jackson man, but he vetoed the Whig program once in office, leading the entire cabinet except Secretary of State Webster to jump ship)
D)Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy. / * western War Hawks went to war over national interests in War of 1812
* Hartford Convention placed their sectional/New England / Federalist interests over the national government, by demanding changes in the Constitution (particularly on economic issues of foreign trade)
* John C. Calhoun’s support for the doctrine of nullification placed the needs of one state over the national government (although an argument can be made he was delaying secession to keep the nation together by suggesting the stage of nullification before outright departure; he desperately wanted to be president, as did Clay and Webster)
* Calhoun resigned the VP and joined the Whigs to promote his own agenda (slavery, among other issues) rather than maintaining national unity (also, the Peggy Eaton sex scandal led the entire cabinet to resign as well, which gave Martin Van Buren a chance to solidify his role as Jackson’s successor)
* Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road and other internal improvements largely as a personal attack on Clay
* Clay manipulated the Senate into censuring Jackson, as a personal attack on the president
* Jackson’s stand on slavery led him to support censorship of the national mail and the Gag Rule in the House
* John Quincy Adams spent his post-presidential career assaulting slavery through his position in the House, regardless of the consequences on national unity (he ultimately died on the House floor, giving a speech attacking slavery)
* Positions towards Texas often shifted with the political winds, as politicians flip-flopped over the issue of annexation, depending on which direction different areas were trending (Jackson, Clay, Tyler, Van Buren, Polk, all manipulated this issue)
* political machines often favored local issues over national issues
* Polk sacrificed his campaign slogan of “54’ 40 or fight!” in favor of the Mexican-American war, which offered more of a chance to spread slavery than a war with Britain did
II. While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own.
A)The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements.
A) cont. / * In the wake of the American Revolution, and accelerating towards the rise of the Jacksonian Democrats, the franchise spread out to almost all white males, while appointed offices increasingly became elected (after 1830, most states rewrote their constitutions to move towards Jacksonian ideals of democracy, as well as moving towards a more laissez-faire approach to the economy)
* religious revivals began to move away from predestination, opening up salvation to everybody who wanted it (more democratically-oriented religions like Baptists and Methodists proved more popular than hierarchical faiths like Episcopalians); religious tolerance of Period 3 (brief period when Catholics were celebrated due to French alliance; First Amendment separating church and state would likely not have been created after 1800; politicians had to belong to a church from this point on to be seen as a good candidate [a position that still persists in 21st century in many states])
* sentimentalism and romanticism began to replace Enlightenment values, as feelings became more important than reason (marriage for love began to replace arranged marriages)
* Market Revolution and Industrial Revolution made more and more luxury goods affordable and available to individuals, raising the standard of living (also creating a class-based society in the North, separating the middle class from urban poor, who were often recent immigrants, and often Catholic)
* More and more (white) Americans were able to climb up the economic ladder, either through education or migrating west to new farmlands; also, widening of the franchise to almost all white males increased their political power
* Second Great Awakening interacted extensively with economics, politics, and social demands, creating a white Christian society that expected Christianity to be the norm, in both public and private life; unlike First Great Awakening, churches did not split into factions or become hostile to each other; rather, they began friendly competitions to help make a better society (unless the Christians in question were Catholic, in which case, violence, mob actions, and institutionalized discrimination were more the norm, as in public schools refusing to use the Catholic Bible, Samuel F.B. Morse writing an anti-Catholic tract that was widely read, the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner [the Know-Nothings] and other anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic Nativist groups)
* Charles Grandison Finney and the Rochester Revival [in the “burned-out district” along the Erie Canal, which generated many utopian and religious experiments, including the Mormons]
* Second Great Awakening generated organized reform groups [the Benevolent Empire] that used revivalist tactics to spread their influence and membership: temperance, sabbatarianism, anti-prostitution, prison reform [moving from punishment to rehabilitation], insane asylums [getting the crazy family members out of basements and attics and into hospital like settings for healing], orphanages, abolitionists, and feminism
* Because churches started these reforms, which were often led by ministers, women could become involved under their guidance, this affording a pathway to activity outside the home and social callings
* Utopian, perfectionist experimentation went rampant, as the drive to create a more ideal society generated dozens of communes and new religions [Transcendentalism, including Emerson, Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Walt Whitman; Brook Farm; the Oneida community [John Humphrey Noyes and plural marriage], the Shakers, the Mormons [polygamy], the Millerites, Fourierism, and many more]
B)A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities. / * Emphasis on individualism, social mobility, and democracy encouraged new approaches to politics, religion, literature, and society (particularly in the North)
* Ralph Waldo Emerson took American religious beliefs [Anne Hutchinson, Quakers, Unitarianism] and melded it with European Romanticism [Carlyle, Goethe, Wordsworth, Swedenborg] and Asian religious beliefs [Hinduism and Zen Buddhism, which were available in English translation for the first time] to create American Transcendentalism: each one of us holds a piece of God, which is our true self; Nature is also a mask for God, and we enter most fully with the divine when we are alone and out in the wilds; each of us has a duty to that unique piece of divinity in us, and we need to rely on that piece of the self, or risk becoming less than we are meant to be [“Envy is ignorance...imitation is suicide...Trust thyself; every heart vibrates to that iron string...whoso would be a man, must be a nonconformist.” Speaker at our school once said a very Emersonian thing: “All of us are born originals; most of us die copies”]