Zheng He: Peaceful ambassador or imperial aggressor?
This four-period lesson features an investigation of the expeditions of Chinese admiral Zheng He in the early 1400s. The lesson guides students through an analysis of four primary source documents that describe Zheng He’s encounters with people in the kingdoms he visited and asks students to decide whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor. Students then read two interpretations of the four primary source documents, one written by a historian who argues that Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador and the other written by a historian who argues that Zheng He was an imperial aggressor. This lesson helps students understand that history is an interpretation of the past based on limited resources, not a fixed or absolute narrative.
CONTENTS OF THIS FILE
Pages
Lesson plan1 – 6
Documents A through I7 –25
Worksheets and answer keys26 – 33
Background notes for teachers34 –42
STANDARDS
California History/Social Science Content Standards
7.3: Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the civilizations of China in the Middle Ages.
7.3.4: Understand the importance of both overland trade and maritime expeditions between China and other civilizations in the Mongol Ascendancy and Ming Dynasty.
California Historical and Social Sciences Analytical Skills
Research, Evidence and Point of View: 4. Students assess the credibility of primary and secondary sources and draw sound conclusions from them.
Historical Thinking Standards from the National Center for History in the Schools
Standard 2: Historical Comprehension
A.Identify the author or source of the historical document or narrative and assess its credibility.
B.Reconstruct the literal meaning of a historical passage.
Standard 3: Historical Analysis and Interpretation
A.Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas.
B.Consider multiple perspectives.
LEARNING GOALS OR OUTCOMES
- To deepen students’ understanding of Zheng He’s expeditions.
- To practice reading and interpreting primary sources.
- To see how two historians interpret the same documents differently.
ASSESSMENTS
Formative assessments
- Check each student’s Document Analysis Worksheet to assess understanding of the primary sources.
- Check Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet to assess students’ understanding of the secondary sources.
Summative assessment
Read Part 2 of the Document Comparison Worksheet to see if the reasons students list constitute appropriate evidence to support their opinion or if the questions they ask would help them establish an opinion.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
Note that “Zheng He” is pronounced “jeng huh.” It is sometimes written Cheng Ho.
Into activities (1 class period)
1. To connect the lesson to students’ previous study of Ming dynasty history, explain that you are going to dig deeper into the story of Zheng He’s expeditions from China to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s. Conduct a think-share-pair exercise based on the question “How do you think the people in the places that Zheng He visited felt about his visits? Do you think they were happy to see the large fleet of Chinese ships showing up with presents, or do you think they were frightened by such a large display of Chinese naval power?” After students have shared their opinions, explain that in this lesson they will study some historical documents that will help them answer that question like a historian would.
2. Present the Introductory Slide Show, directing students to take notes with whatever note-taking strategy you generally use.
- When you reach Slide 16, which mentions Documents A and B, distribute those documents to students. Direct students to take turns reading paragraphs from Document A out loud while other students use the map in Document B (Slide 4 in the Introductory Slide Show) to show the class the places mentioned. Direct students to keep Documents A and B available for reference when they read Documents D, E, F and G.
- When you reach Slide 18, play the video at least once. When it is finished, ask students whether the video portrays the Chinese fleet as peaceful or aggressive.
- When you reach Slide 20, click on the link to access a list of illustrations and brief descriptions of the ships in Zheng He’s fleet. (Once you are at the Web site, you can select the FLASH EXPERIENCE link to access the same information in a flashier format. After you reach the Flash page, select the IMPERIAL FLEET link just to the right of the COURTYARD heading. Also notice that the link called THE VOYAGES GALLERY features illustrations and brief descriptions of some of the items that were traded and offered as tribute.)
Through activities (2 class periods)
1. Picking up on the “historians’ debate” presented at the end of the Introductory Slide Show, explain to students that they are going to analyze short accounts of four encounters between Zheng He’s fleet and people who the Chinese met on the expeditions. They will use these accounts to help form their own opinions of whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor.
2. To provide additional historical context to help students evaluate the accounts, first distribute Document C, which explains the tributary system of international relations that prevailed in East and Southeast Asia at the time of Zheng He’s expeditions. Direct students to read the document and check their understanding through a brief discussion.
Note: If you are teaching this lesson in the United States, it is likely that a majority of students will analyze the primary sources with a perspective that is similar to Geoff Wade’s, which derives largely from the same Eurocentric historical and cultural experience that students in the United States are usually exposed to. Document C tries to explain how people raised with Confucian historical and cultural traditions might agree with Tan’s analysis of the documents. It is not necessary for students to agree with Tan’s perspective, but the lesson reaches its goals better if students understand a perspective that may be different from their own.
3. Organize students into pairs and give each pair one copy of Documents D, E, F and G, four copies of the Document Analysis Worksheet, and one copy of the Document Comparison Worksheet. Lead the class in a reading and analyzing Document D to model how students should think about the document, complete the Document Analysis Worksheet, and complete the corresponding row in Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet.
Notice that the Document Analysis Worksheet asks students to practice “sourcing,” “close reading,” and “contextualizing.” These are three skills central to the Reading Like a Historian pedagogy on which this lesson is based. For more information on sourcing, close reading, and contextualizing, please see the introduction to this collection of lessons and/or the Web site of the Stanford History Education Group. Take particular note of the link “Unit 1: Introduction.”
As is the practice with Reading Like a Historian curriculum, the primary sources have been re-written (modified) to make them accessible to contemporary 7th grade students. The original versions are also provided with the lesson, (1) so that teachers can evaluate the modification process and (2) to provide the option of using the original versions with students who are able to read them.
4. Once you have modeled for the whole class how to source, close read, and contextualize Document D, set the pairs to work at their own pace analyzing Documents E, F and G. As they complete their analysis of each document, direct them to complete the corresponding section of Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet. (Once students have mastered the process, they could continue analyzing the documents as homework; this requires providing each student with copies of the documents and worksheets.)
5. When all pairs have completed the chart on Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet, debrief the analyses with the whole class. Hopefully some pairs have interpreted documents differently from other pairs. If all pairs have reached the same conclusion on any document, the teacher should explain the other viewpoint to help students understand both perspectives.
6. Direct the students to complete the last section of Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet. Allow pairs of students to discuss their responses, but require each student to write his or her own individual response. Notice that an option is offered for students who do not think they have enough information to reach an opinion.
Beyond activities (1 class period)
1. After students have completed Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet, distribute Documents H and I. Explain to students that they will now see how two historians analyzed the same documents that the students have analyzed. Read the documents as a whole class or in student pairs. Direct students to complete Part 2 of the Document Comparison Worksheet as they read. Encourage them to read each document more than once.
2. The last items on Part 2 constitute the outlines of a short essay on the topic. If practice of essay writing is appropriate at this point in the class schedule, you can direct students to compose an essay.
Sources
Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (2000). The Rise of Modern China(6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Document C: Pages 130-131.
Ma, Huan. (1970). Ying-ya Sheng-lan. (The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores). (J. V. G. Mills, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Hakluyt Society. (Original work published 1451.)
Document D: Pages 99-100
Document F: Pages 116=117
Document G: Pages 108-109, 113-114
Su, Ming-Yang. (2005). Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. Torrance, CA: Author.
Document A: Pages 35-39
Document E: Pages 150-151
Tan, Ta Sen. (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia Studies.
Document I: Pages 166-168.
Wade, Geoff. (2009). Ming Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. In Geoff Wade (Ed.). China and Southeast Asia. (Vol. 2:Southeast Asia and Ming China from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century).(p. 212-244). London: Routledge.
Document H: Pages 218-221.
Visuals used in Introductory Slide Show (in order of appearance)
Document B (map of Zheng He’s 7th voyage)
Menkov, Vladimir. (2010). File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.sav. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from
Based on Dreyer, Edward L. (2006). Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. New York: Pearson Longman.
Woodblock print of Chinese ship
Dejvik. (2005). File:ZhengHeShips.gif.Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from
Illustration of Zheng He
International Zheng He Society. (n.d.). Retrieved April 6, 2011, from
Photograph of models of Zheng He’s fleet
Taken by the author at the Cheng Ho Cultural Museum, Melaka, Malaysia, on March 18, 2011.
Video animation of Zheng He’s ships
National Library Board, Singapore. (2005-2006). Video. Zheng He Exhibition. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from
Photograph of models of Zheng He’s and Columbus’s ships
Plougmann, Lars. (2006). File:Zheng He's ship compared to Columbus's.jpg. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from
Document A: List of Zheng He’s Expeditions (Modified)
From a stone marker erected March 31, 1431, at a temple near the port where Zheng He’s fleets set off on their expeditions.
Since we, Zheng He and his companions, received the Emperor’s orders to visit foreign countries, we have conducted seven voyages. Each time we have commanded tens of thousands of soldiers and more than 100 ships. We have visited Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Iran, and other countries of the western regions, totaling more than 30 in all. We have traveled more than 30,000 miles.
When we found foreign kings who were obstructing the influence of Chinese culture and were disrespectful, we captured them alive. Pirates who were plundering other people were exterminated. We made the sea routes peaceful so that the foreign people could quietly pursue their business. This is the list of our voyages.
1. 1405-1407 we went to India and other countries. At that time the pirate Chen Zuyi and his followers were plundering the native merchants in Palembang [now part of Indonesia]. We captured him alive.
2. 1407-1409 we went to Indonesia, India, Vietnam and Thailand. The kings of those countries all presented as tribute local products, precious birds, and rare animals.
3. 1409-1411 we went by way of Sri Lanka. Its king was guilty of gross lack of respect and plotted against our fleet. The plot was discovered and the king was captured alive. On our return to China he was presented to the Emperor, who allowed him to return to his own country.
4. 1414-1415 we went to Iran and other countries. In Semudera [now part of Indonesia] the false king Sekandar was marauding and invading his country. We captured him alive, brought him back to China, and presented him to the Emperor.
5. 1417-1419 the country of Hormuz [now part of Iran] presented lions, leopards, and horses as tribute. The country of Aden presented a giraffe and oryx. The country of Mogadishu [now part of Somalia] presented zebras and lions.
6. 1421-1422 we returned ambassadors from Hormuz and other countries to their homes.
7. 1431 we start once more on a journey to the western regions.
Source: Based on an English translation of the stone marker provided in the book Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. The book was written by Chinese historian Su Ming-Yang and published in 2005 in Torrance, California. The translation is on pages 35-39.
Document B: Map of Zheng He’s 7th Expedition
- Palembang is discussed in Document D.
- Sri Lanka, discussed in Document E, is the island off the southern tip of India, where Beruwala and Galle are marked with red dots.
- Semudera is discussed in Document F.
- Malacca (also spelled “Melaka”) is discussed in Document G.
- Nanjing was the capital of China at the time of Zheng He’s first five expeditions.
- Beijing became the capital about the time of the sixth expedition.
Source: Drawn by Wikipedia contributor Vladimir Menkov, based on information from a book by historian EdwardDreyertitledZheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433.
Document A: List of Zheng He’s Expeditions (Original)
From a stone marker erected March 31, 1431, at a temple near the port where Zheng He’s fleets set off on their expeditions.
… From the time when we, Zheng He and his companions, at the beginning of the Yongle period [1402-1424] received the Imperial commission as envoys to the barbarians up till now seven voyages have taken place and each time we have commanded several tens of thousand government soldiers and more than a hundred ocean-going vessels. Starting from Tai Chang and taking the sea we have by way of the countries of Champa [Vietnam], Siam [Thailand] Java [Indonesia], Cochin [India] and Calicut [India] reached Hormuz [Iran] and other countries of the western regions, more than 30 countries in all, traversing more than one hundred thousand li of immense water spaces …
On arriving in the outlying countries, those among the foreign kings who were obstructing the “transforming influence” (of Chinese culture) and were disrespectful were captured alive, and brigands who gave themselves over to violence and plunder were exterminated.
Consequently, the sea route was purified and tranquillized and the natives, owing to this, were enabled quietly to pursue their avocations. All this is due to the aid of the goddess [to whom this marker is dedicated]. … we have written an inscription on stone and have moreover recorded the years and months of our voyages both going and returning in order to make these known forever.
I. In the third year of Yongle (1405) commanding the fleet we have gone to Calicut [India] and other countries. At that time the pirate Chen Zuyi and his followers were assembled at Palembang [Indonesia], where they plundered the native merchants. We captured that leader alive and returned in the fifth year (1407).
II. In the fifth year of Yongle (1407) commanding the fleet we went to Java [Indonesia], Calicut [India], Cochin [India], and Siam [Thailand]. The kings of these countries all presented as tribute local products, and precious birds and rare animals. We returned in the seventh year (1409).
III. In the seventh year of Yongle (1409), commanding the fleet we went to the countries (visited) before and took our route by the country of Ceylon [Sri Lanka]. Its king Alagakkonara was guilty of a gross lack of respect and plotted against the fleet. Owing to the manifest answer to prayer of the divine power, the plot was discovered and thereupon that king was captured alive. In the ninth year (1411) on our return he was presented to the throne as a prisoner; subsequently he received the Imperial favor of returning to his own country.
IV. In the twelfth year of Yongle (1414), commanding the fleet, we went to Hormuz and other countries. In the country of Semudera [Indonesia] the false king Sekandar was marauding and invading his country. Its king had sent an envoy to the Palace Gates in order to lodge a complaint and to request assistance. Approaching with the official troops under our command we have exterminated and arrested (the rebels), and silently aided by the divine power we thereupon captured the false king alive. In the thirteenth year (1415), on our return he was presented (to the Emperor as a prisoner). In that year the king of the country of Melaka came in person with his wife and sons to present tribute.
V. In the fifteenth year of Yongle (1417) commanding the fleet we visited the western regions. The country of Hormuz [Iran] presented lions, leopards with gold spots and western horses. The country of Aden [Yemen] presented a kirin of which the native name is tsu-la-fa (giraffe), as well as the long horned animal (oryx). The country of Mogadishu [Somalia] presented zebras as well as lions. The country of Brawa [Somalia] presented camels which run one thousand li as well as camel-birds (ostriches). The countries of Java [Indonesia] and Calicut [India] presented the animal mi-li-kao (?). All presented local products the like of which had never been heard of before and sent the maternal uncle or the younger brother (of the king) to present a letter of homage written on gold leaf as well as tribute.