The Renaissance and 17th Century: The Big Questions

1)How did the Renaissance – and a newfound interest in the classics – influence England (most notably Henry VIII, Elizabeth I, and Shakespeare)?

2)How do the elements of a classical tragedy help us better understand Macbeth?

3)How do the ideas of fate, free will, evil, and equivocationplay a role in the characters ofMacbeth?

4)How are the literary terms hamartia, foil, dramatic irony, soliloquy, and climax important to our understanding of Macbeth?

5)How are the literary terms sonnet (quatrain, turn, rhymed couplet), Metaphysical Poetry, Cavalier Poetry (sprezzatura, carpe diem),andPastoral Poetry important to our understanding of 17th- Century Poetry?

Macbeth: Central Questions

1)How is Macbeth a tragedy in the classical sense? In other words, what does it have in common with the literature and philosophies of the Greek and Roman societies that inspired the Renaissance artists?

Classical Tragedy: According to Aristotle's Poetics, tragedy involves a protagonist of high estate ("better than we") who falls from prosperity to misery through a series of reversals and discoveries as a result of a "tragic flaw," generally an error caused by human frailty. Aside from this initial moral weakness or error, the protagonist is basically a good person.Since there must be an element of choice in order for there to be a true tragedy, the tragic hero falls because he chooses one course over another. Before his/her end, a he must come to some sort of awareness of what went wrong or what was really going on. Tragedy evokes pity and fear in the audience, leading finally to catharsis (the feeling of “emotional purgation” that an audience feels after witnessing the plight of the tragic hero: we feel emotionally drained at the end).

Medieval tragedy: A narrative (not a play) concerning how a person falls from high to low estate as the Goddess Fortune spins her wheel. In the middle ages, there was no "tragic" theater per se; medieval theater in England was primarily liturgical drama, which developed in the later middle ages (15th century) as a way of teaching scripture to the illiterate (mystery plays) or of reminding them to be prepared for death and God's Judgment (morality plays).

Renaissance tragedy derives less from medieval tragedy (which randomly occurs as Fortune spins her wheel) than from the Aristotelian notion of the tragic flaw, a moral weakness or human error that causes the protagonist's downfall. Unlike classical tragedy, however, it tends to include subplots and comic relief. From Seneca, early Renaissance tragedy borrowed the violent and bloody plots, resounding rhetorical speeches, the frequent use of ghosts, and sometimes the five-act structure. In his greatest tragedies (e.g. Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth), Shakespeare transcends the conventions of Renaissance tragedy, imbuing his plays with a timeless universality.

The Characteristics of a Tragedy

  • Discovery of murder
  • Revenge and obstacles to revenge
  • Supernatural elements
  • Complete destruction—including of the hero
  • Mad scene (insanity)
  • Comic relief
  • A confidant
  • Action in inaction
  • Soliloquy

2)How does the play, a work of Scottish history as well as tragedy, encompass many interests of the king, James I?

Shakespeare's chief source for Macbeth was Holinshed's Chronicles (Macbeth), who based his account of Scotland's history. An examination of Macbeth and Shakespeare’s sources lead us to formulate several conclusions concerning the motives behind the dramatist’s alterations. It can be argued that the changes serve three main purposes: the dramatic purpose of producing a more exciting story than is found in the sources; the thematic purpose of creating a more complex characterization of Macbeth; and the political purpose of catering to the beliefs of the reigning monarch, King James I. And, in the grander scheme, Shakespeare’s alterations function to convey the sentiment echoed in many of his works – that there is a divine right of kings, and that to usurp the throne is a nefarious crime against all of humanity.

Changes in Character:

  • Notable changes are also made by Shakespeare in his depiction of Holinshed’s three weird sisters, and it is apparent that the alterations are implemented partially to instill trepidation in the audience. Holinshed’s sisters are ‘creatures of the elderwood . . . nymphs or fairies’ (Chronicles 268). Nymphs are generally regarded as goddesses of the mountains, forests, or waters, and they possess a great deal of youthful beauty. And similarly, fairies are defined as enchantresses, commonly taking a small and dainty human form. Holinshed’s illustration of the creatures Macbeth chances upon is far removed from the portrayal Shakespeare gives us.

Why?King James was so enthralled with contemporary witchcraft that he wrote a book on the subject entitled Daemonology. As with the dramatist’s incorporation of the effects of the human conscience in Macbeth, it is probable that Shakespeare took into account his monarch’s position regarding witches when he altered the portrait of the weird sisters in Holinshed’s work, thus capitalizing on the opportunity to subtly acknowledge and please King James.

  • In Macbeth, the role and characterization of Banquo differs considerably. In both texts, Banquo initially is a noble soldier fighting alongside Macbeth. However, Holinshed reports that Banquo becomes an accomplice in a murder; in contrast, Shakespeare presents Banquo as being noble and good throughout the play

Why?As with most of the changes implemented by Shakespeare from the original source, Banquo's portrayal serves all three purposes: dramatic, thematic, and political. It is theatrically more interesting to have Banquo seen as the antithesis of Macbeth -- a pure, moral character foil.

  • A case for Shakespeare's feelings regarding kingship can also be made by examining the changes he makes to King Duncan. Shakespeare changes the King Duncan found in Holinshed's Chronicles into a respected and ideal leader.

Why? He is James I’s ancestor!

Whether one agrees with the postulations regarding Shakespeare's authorial intentions, one would be hard pressed to refute the claim that Shakespeare has taken his semi-historical sources and made alterations that allow for a more exciting, thought-provoking, and, ultimately, tragic story.

3)Equivocation, or putting on a “false face,” is universal – we all do it. How does Shakespeare use this oldest of human ploys to keep the audience guessing?

c.1380, "the fallacy of using a word in different senses at different stages of the reasoning" (a loan-transl. of Gk. homonymia, lit. "having the same name"), from O.Fr. equivocation, from L.L. æquivocationem (nom. æquivocatio), from æquivocus "of identical sound," from L. æquus "equal" + vocare "to call".

The use of ambiguous expressions, esp. in order to mislead or hedge; prevarication. You may equivocate when you smile at someone you dislike in order to get what you want. We are all guilty of this; can you think of more examples?

4)How do the forces of fate and free will work in Macbeth’s life?

Free will is a concept in traditional philosophy used to refer to the belief that human behavior is not absolutely determined by external causes, but is the result of choices made by an act of will by the agent. Such choices are themselves not determined by external causes, but are determined by the motives and intentions of the agent, which themselves are not absolutely determined by external causes.

Traditionally, those who deny the existence of free will look to fate, supernatural powers, or material causes as the determinants of human behavior. Free will advocatesbelieve that while everything else in the universe may be the inevitable consequence of external forces, human behavior is unique and is determined by the agent, not by God or the stars or the laws of nature.

The traditional concept of free will enters the mainstream of Western Philosophy in metaphysical questions about human responsibility for moral behavior. Many modern debates about free will are often couched in terms of responsibility for moral and criminal behavior. In the Christian tradition, which has framed the issues surrounding free will, the belief hinges on a metaphysical belief in non-physical reality. The will is seen as a faculty of the soul or mind, which is understood as standing outside of the physical world and its governing laws. What do you think?

5)There are many images of evil in the play (especially relating to weather and animals). How does Shakespeare use these evil images (and their contrasts, innocent images) to develop his characters?

The concept of the familiar has been a vital component of various cultures throughout man’s history. The Romans, for example, believed that each household was protected by a familiar whose job it was to keep the family from harm, and shamans and medicine men of various tribal traditions have long honored the spirits of animals for their wisdom and assistance in magical workings. Yet despite these positive influences, when we think of a familiar the most common image is that of the evil witch with her fearsome-looking black cat. This archetype, straight from the fairytales of our childhood, has its roots in the fear and superstitions of the Dark Ages, and it bears scant resemblance to the modern-day familiar.

While the familiar could take any animal form, right down to the smallest spider, the creature whose reputation suffered most from its role as the witch’s evil accomplice was, of course, the cat. This association may have come about because cats were plentiful and were often kept as pets to help control the rodent population, an ever-present problem due to the lack of sanitation. Black cats were especially targeted as familiars because the color black was associated with the powers of darkness.

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