- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Classical conditioning is a fundamental way that animals, including humans, learn new responses. Classical conditioning involves learning reflexive, involuntary responses to stimuli that don't normally cause such responses.
- Pavlov and Watson’s Contributions - Using Pavlov's classic research studies of salivation
in dogs, students are introduced to classical conditioning, where an initially neutral stimulus that
does not normally cause any particular reflex or emotional response is paired with another
stimulus that does cause such a response. After several pairings, this previously neutral stimulus
(NS) will cause the response to occur. Each stimulus and response is named
according to its cause or consequence. The neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), the stimulus that causes the reflex or emotional response. The reflex or
emotional response itself is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). When the neutral
stimulus begins to cause the response on its own; it is then referred to as the conditioned
stimulus (CS); the response caused by the conditioned stimulus is then referred to as the
conditioned response (CR).Watson demonstrated how the emotion of fear could be
classical conditioning. The story of Little Albert shows students how fears (and phobias)
called conditioned emotional responses (CERs) can be easily conditioned.
B. Basic Principles- After introducing students to key concepts, the chapter enters into a
discussion of stimulus generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original CS elicits the CR; discrimination
occurs when only the CS elicits the CR. When the UCS is repeatedly withheld and the
previous association between the CS and the UCS is broken, extinction occurs. When a CR
that had been extinguished spontaneously reappears, it is known as spontaneous recovery.
Higher order conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with a second conditioned
stimulus (CS) that already causes a learned or conditioned response, explains many emotions
and attitudes.
II. OPERANT CONDITIONING - A second type of conditioning, operant conditioning, (also
called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning) is based on the consequences of
an organism’s behavior. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished
if followed by punishment.
A. Thorndike and Skinner’s Contributions - Operant conditioning was originally investigated
by Edward Thorndike and later by B. F. Skinner and occurs when people or animals learn by
the consequences of their responses. These consequences may consist of either
reinforcement or punishment.
B. Basic Principles - Reinforcement is anything that is likely to cause and increase in the
response. Punishment is anything that is likely to cause a decrease in the response. Primary
reinforcers satisfy an unlearned biological need and secondary reinforcers have learned
value. Positive reinforcement occurs when something is added to increase the response rates.
Negative reinforcement, which is different from punishment, occurs when something is removed
in order to increase the response rate. There are several kinds of schedules of reinforcement.
Continuous schedules reinforce each response. Partial schedules reinforce some, but not all
responses. The major types of partial reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed
interval, and variable interval. Shaping is the process of teaching a person or an animal a
complex task by reinforcing successive approximations to a desired response.
There are also two kinds of punishment, positive and negative. Positive punishment occurs when something is given to decrease the response rate. Negative punishment consists of removing something to decrease the response rate. (It is helpful here to remind students to think in mathematical terms – positive (add) and negative (take away). Punishment has several serious side effects including increased aggression as well as learned helplessness.
Psychology at Work: Why Can’t We Get Anything Done Around Here? -
Students are given an opportunity to consider the effective use of reinforcement and punishment in a work scenario and keep the following tips in mind: (1) Feedback. Provide clear and immediate feedback when the person or animal makes the desired response; (2) Timing. Apply reinforcers or punishers as soon as possible after the response is made; (3) Consistency. Be consistent in applying both reinforcers and punishers; (4) Order of Presentation. Be sure to reinforce or punish after the behavior has been exhibited; and (5) Combine Key Learning Principles.
As with classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses the following terms: stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Extinction occurs when the reinforcement is withheld until the subject stops responding to the stimulus. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished response spontaneously returns. The difficulty in extinguishing a response is directly related to the schedule of reinforcement being used to strengthen the response.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Using Learning Principles to
Succeedin College - Students are presented with an active learning activity
and askedto apply what they have learned about the principles of learning to
their college experience.
III.COGNITIVE–SOCIAL LEARNING - Mental processes that lead to learned behavior are explored by the cognitive-social learning perspective.
A. Insight and Latent Learning - Wolfgang Kohler, working with chimpanzees, demonstrated
that learning can occur with a sudden flash of insight and Edward Tolman demonstrated latent learning occurs in the absence of reinforcement remaining hidden until needed.
B. Observational Learning- Observational learning (or social learning) is the process of learning how to do something by merely watching someone else perform a behavior, rather
than learning through doing. Observational learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura to explain how people learn by observing others who serve as models.
Research Highlight: The Theory Heard Round the World – Bandura’s “Bobo doll” study is considered a classic in psychology demonstrating that children will imitate models they observe on television. The social-cognitive theory has played a pivotal role worldwide using television to model positive behaviors and practices. Students are given an opportunity to apply some the principles observational learning in their life.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Scaffolding as a Teaching Techniquein Different Cultures - This section discusses the work of Wood et al. (1976)wherescaffolding is used in informal situations between a master teacher andlearner and involves a combination of shaping and modeling.
- THE BIOLOGY OF LEARNING
- Neuroscience and Learning – Research in learning suggests that new synaptic connections and
changes in the brain including the cortex, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, and amygdala.
- Evolution and Learning – Biological preparedness innately predisposes an organism to form
associations between stimuli and responses. Taste aversion research is cited as an example of an easily classically conditioned association. Instinctive drift occurs when a conditioned response shift back toward innate response patterns.
- USING CONDITIONING AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Psychology at Work: Classical Conditioning – From Marketing to Medical Treatments - Advertisers, politicians, film producers, music artists, and explanations of prejudice, phobias, and medical procedures are all cited as examples of classical conditioning.
Psychology at Work: Operant Conditioning –Prejudice, Biofeedback, and Superstition - The influence of operant conditioningprinciples have numerous real life applications. Often prejudice and discrimination are positively reinforced. To control high blood pressure and anxiety, some researchers use biofeedback--a procedure in which people's biological functions are monitored and the results made known to them so they can learn to control these functions. Professional athletes may exhibit superstitious behavior because of accidental reinforcement.
Psychology at Work: Cognitive-Social Learning– We See, We Do? - In the 35 years sinceBandura’s original research, cognitive-social learning theory has been applied to contexts such as explaining prejudice, the media influences on consumerchoices, and aggressive tendencies.