This instructor's manual has been prepared for use with Taking Sides:
Clashing Views on Controversial African Issues. For each issue, the
following have been provided: a synopsis of each author's position on
the issue, teaching suggestions, and multiple-choice and essay
questions.
The teaching hints consist of suggestions for generating
class discussion around the themes raised by the clashing essays.
The multiple-choice questions are meant to test more than the
student's memory of who said what. They are meant to encourage the
student to make reasoned choices, or, in other words, to exercise good
judgment. The essay questions encourage the student to write organized
and coherent analyses of the issues. These questions may also be used
in class discussions.
At the back of this manual you will find a TAKING SIDES BRIEF
EVALUATION FORM. If you plan to use Taking Sides to encourage and
develop critical thinking skills in your students but would prefer not
to initiate in-class debates, this form is designed to give you
another option for using Taking Sides and for evaluating student
response to reading assignments from the book.
Any comments, good or bad, from professors who have used
Taking Sides in the classroom would be appreciated, especially any
suggestions as to how it might be improved! Should you want to make
recommendations for new issues, selections, or improvements, please
write to the Taking Sides Program, \Dushkin, 530 Old Whitfield Street,
Guilford, CT 06437, or call 800-243-6532, or e-mail
. If you are looking for general
information or wish to request a desk copy of any Taking Sides book,
please contact our faculty support center through The McGraw-Hill
Companies at 800-338-3987, prompt 3.
Lastly, you are invited to visit the Web site for the Taking Sides
series at: And by all means,
let the Taking Sides Program know if there are any links that would be
appropriate for the site or your thoughts on how it could better serve
your interests. \vskip 12pt \nobreak \begin{flushright}
William G. Moseley
Macalester College
ISSUE 1
Is Africa a Lost Cause?
YES: Gavin Kitching, from "Why I Gave Up African Studies," African
Studies Review and Newsletter (June 2000)
NO: Jeff Popke, from "`The Politics of the Mirror': On Geography and
Afro-Pessimism," African Geographical Review (December 2001)
Synopsis
Gavin Kitching, professor of political science at the University of
New South Wales, left the field of African studies because he "found
it depressing." According to Kitching, Africanist scholars have failed
to see Africa's own ruling elites as the principal culprits for the
continent's dire predicament. He suggests that we "have to ask what it
is about the history and culture of sub-Saharan Africa that has led
to... its disastrous present." Jeff Popke, a professor of geography at
East Carolina University, challenges the notion that "Africa's
`failure' is due to its backward and uncivilized culture." He suggests
that Afro-pessimists are prone to ethnocentric assessments of Africa
that judge the continent on Western rather than African terms. While
African realities may not reflect our own assumptions about modernity,
he argues that Africans are pursuing their own vision of development
with great skill.
Discussing the Issue
There are a number of important points that the instructor may wish to
emphasize when facilitating discussion on these selections. First is
the distinction between "internalist" and "externalist" explanations
of Africa's problems. Internalist arguments tend to focus on factors
within Africa (e.g., poor leadership, corruption, immorality) to
explain developmental difficulties, whereas externalist explanations
emphasize exogenous factors such as the lingering effects of
colonialism or globalization. Internalist explanations date to the
colonial era, but include a number of contemporary works as well. The
primary criticism of these works is that they overlook deep and long
standing connections between Africa and the global economy,
connections that may have a profound impact on political leadership
and resource flows within African countries. Externalist explanations
have often relied on dependency theory and world systems theory to
situate constraints on African development. What both of these
theories do is place Africa in a broader global context in which
African elites, and African economies more generally, are not serving
the needs of their own peoples, but rather the demands of
industrialized nations. One problem with the externalist argument is
that it may deny ordinary Africans "agency," i.e., a recognition that
local people have the ability to influence events in spite of external
influences.
Another aspect the instructor may wish to highlight in discussion is
how Africa may or not be used by the West as a "mirror." Popke
obviously asserts that, through this mirror, things European are
defined as positive and advanced in relation to a "backward" Africa.
While African realities may not reflect our own assumptions about
modernity, Popke argues that Africans are pursuing their own vision of
development with great skill. Kitching would probably accuse Popke of
being a post-modern apologist who is reluctant to recognize the role
that corrupt African leaders have played in the continent's demise.
Testing on the Issue
Web Questions
1. According to Gavin Kitching, who believes that Africa is a lost
cause, what has been the most damaging legacy of colonialism in
Africa?
a. "neo-imperialist" economic and cultural relations
b. environmental degradation from excessive resource use
c. European guilt and African psychological dependence
d. depleted cropland and widespread famine
2. Jeff Popke, who does not believe that Africa is a lost cause,
states that Africa is often described by political analysts as
"falling out" of the global economy because
a. few high-tech industries are located in Africa.
b. many countries in Africa have a primarily agricultural
economic base.
c. many countries in Africa discourage free trade through
protectionist tariffs.
d. much of the economic activity in Africa is in the informal
sector rather than in formal finance and trade networks.
Multiple-Choice Questions
3. According to Kitching, what is mainly responsible for a lack of
economic development in many parts of Africa?
a. a lack of foreign investment in African industry
b. constant civil war
c. an underdeveloped educational system
d. economically and politically destructive behavior among the
ruling elites
4. According to Popke, "Afro-Pessimism" is the
a. viewpoint of Africans who believe that economic development
will do nothing to help the rural poor.
b. idea that human rights abuses will continue in Africa
despite international intervention.
c. idea that Africa is beyond help, and that problems on the
continent have only been getting worse, not improving.
d. belief that economic development in Africa will only lead to
further environmental degradation.
5. According to Popke, all of the following are aspects of African
politics that do not fit with Western conceptions of politics
except which one?
a. a lack of formalized checks and balances
b. a strong distinction between "formal politics" and the rest
of civil society
c. political networks based on kinship, clan, ethnic, or
religious affiliation
d. the exploitation of government resources by political
leaders for redistribution to their political clientele
6. Dependency theory suggests that
a. post-colonial governing elites in Africa serve Western
capitalist and imperialist interests rather than the needs
of their own people.
b. former colonies can achieve high rates of economic growth if
they are dependent on more developed countries.
c. economic growth is dependent on large reserves of natural
resources.
d. former African colonies are unable to develop their
infrastructure without help from other countries.
7. Advocates of "externalist" explanations of African problems
often accuse those who support "internalist" explanations of
a. ignoring Africa's role in the global economic system.
b. blaming the African people for the continent's economic and
political problems.
c. failing to see the negative effects of colonialism.
d. focusing on human development issues such as level of
education and access to health care.
8. The African Alternative Framework asserts that the process of
development in Africa must
a. be facilitated by foreign capital.
b. benefit the majority of African people and come from within
Africa.
c. be centered on smaller regional economies and not on
participation in the global economy.
d. include greater industrialization and urbanization.
Essay Questions
9. Do you agree with Kitching that corruption among African elites
is the main cause of political and economic problems in Africa?
In what ways is this explanation true? Are there other factors
that have had a greater impact on the poor economic situation in
Africa?
10. Is the distinction between "internalist" and "externalist"
explanations for African problems helpful in the study of
Africa? Are there some factors that can be considered both
internal and external?
11. If African political and economic structures are not to be
measured against Western standards of development, what should
be the role of international aid groups (such as the World Bank
or the United Nations Development Program) that often use
Western development standards in their aid projects?
Answers
1.c 2.d 3.d 4.c 5.b 6.a 7.b 8.b
ISSUE 2
Has the Colonial Experience Negatively Distorted Contemporary African
Development Patterns?
YES: Marcus Colchester, from "Slave and Enclave: Towards a Political
Ecology of Equatorial Africa," The Ecologist (September/October
1993)
NO: Robin M. Grier, from "Colonial Legacies and Economic Growth,"
Public Choice (March 1999)
Synopsis
Marcus Colchester, director of the Forest Peoples Programme of the
World Rainforest Movement, argues that rural communities in equatorial
Africa are today on the point of collapse because they have been
weakened by centuries of outside intervention. In Gabon, the Congo,
and the Central African Republic, an enduring colonial legacy of the
French are lands and forests controlled by state institutions that
operate as patron-client networks to enrich indigenous elite and
outside commercial interests. Robin M. Grier, assistant professor of
economics at the University of Oklahoma, contends that African
colonies that were held for longer periods of time tend to have
performed better, on average, after independence.
Discussing the Issue
Key elements to highlight when discussing this issue include whether
or not there has been an enduring legacy of colonialism in Africa, and
the extent to which such a legacy is positive or negative for
contemporary development patterns. Many authors, including Colchester,
believe that colonialism led to some fundamental social and economic
changes on the African continent. Grier is also quite interested in
the durability of the colonial imprint, arguing that a lasting impact
is related to a longer colonial phase. Other authors suggest that one
has to be careful not to exaggerate the impact of colonialism, which
had a very limited physical presence in some instances and, when
compared to the expanse of history, occurred over a relatively short
period of time.
Colchester and Grier disagree on whether or not the heritage of
colonialism has been positive or negative for African development.
Colchester outlines a very negative outcome for former French colonies
in central Africa while Grier asserts that the longer the period of
colonial occupation the higher the chances for a positive legacy.
There are a couple of points related to the above that should emerge
in a discussion. The first is the different approaches to colonialism
undertaken by the major colonial powers that Grier describes in her
selection, i.e., the French policy of assimilation and the British
approach of indirect rule. It is perhaps worth noting that some
scholars believe that these differences in colonial approach have been
exaggerated. The second point concerns the scale of analyses as
Colchester presents the student with a study of the French colonial
legacy in three central African countries while Grier examines a much
larger set of cases. As such, Colchester's negative cases may not
necessarily be inconsistent with Grier's conclusion that the British
were more benevolent colonialists than the French.
Testing on the Issue
Web Questions
1. Marcus Colchester, who believes that the colonial experience
negatively distorted contemporary African development patterns,
states that after it granted its former African colonies
independence, the French government intervened in African
politics to
a. prevent human-rights abuses.
b. stop Communist revolutions.
c. ensure fair elections.
d. protect its economic interests in the resources of the
former colonies.
2. Robin M. Grier, who does not believe that the colonial
experience negatively distorted contemporary African development
patterns, states that her findings do not support "a crude form
of the exploitation theory," a theory that asserts that
a. higher levels of resource exploitation in a country lead to
higher rates of economic growth.
b. greater exploitation of agricultural resources and more
intensive farming practices lead to higher crop yields.
c. colonialism caused instability and dependence in colonial
states through exploitation of the native population.
d. higher levels of resource exploitation lead to environmental
degradation and slow economic growth.
Multiple-Choice Questions
3. Colchester states that before the arrival of Europeans, Bantu
society had been moving from a decentralized, egalitarian system
to a more structured social hierarchy because of
a. the slave trade.
b. war and competition for land.
c. increased trade between villages.
d. years of drought and food shortages.
4. According to Colchester, why did French colonial officials
resettle the dispersed African communities into more permanent
villages?
a. to follow traditional patterns of residence and land
allocation
b. to improve standards of living among the villagers
c. to exert more control over the local people and obtain more
labor and tax revenue from them
d. to end land-rights disputes between different social groups
5. According to Colchester, the logging industry in equatorial
Africa is mainly controlled by
a. foreign-owned or foreign-financed companies.
b. the national governments in Africa.
c. African elites.
d. local people who have traditionally owned the land.
6. What did Grier conclude was the reason why former British
colonies perform better than former French colonies and also why
there is a positive relationship between length of colonization
and economic growth?
a. amount of infrastructure development
b. methods and policies for educating local people
c. rate of population growth
d. geographical location
7. Grier's findings about the relationship between population
growth and economic development suggest that
a. for Africa, there was no correlation between increases in
population growth and greater economic development.
b. for Africa, there was a positive correlation between
increases in population growth and greater economic
development.
c. in any country of the world, high population growth rates
lead to higher economic development because there is a
larger labor base.
d. countries with significant decreases in population growth
rates experienced greater economic growth.
Essay Questions
8. According to Colchester, what factors have led to the
destruction of rural society in the countries of equatorial
Africa? What are the current and potential future effects of
this on a country as a whole?
9. How might the different French and British educational systems
described by Grier have impacted other aspects of a society,
both during and after colonialism?
10. Should developing countries encourage foreign investment in
their economies by allowing foreign control of industries? What
are some of the negative effects of foreign control of
industries? What are some potential benefits?
11. How could a longer period of colonialism benefit newly
independent countries? What would have been some of the negative
impacts of a longer colonial period?
Answers
1.d 2.c 3.b 4.c 5.a 6.b 7.a
ISSUE 3
Have Structural Adjustment Policies Been Effective at Promoting
Development in Africa?
YES: Gerald Scott, from "Who Has Failed Africa? IMF Measures or the
African Leadership?" Journal of Asian and African Studies
(August 1998)
NO: Macleans A. Geo-Jaja and Garth Mangum, from "Structural
Adjustment as an Inadvertent Enemy of Human Development in
Africa," Journal of Black Studies (September 2001)
Synopsis
Gerald Scott, an economist at Florida State University, argues that
structural adjustment programs are the most promising option for
promoting economic growth in Africa and asserts that mismanagement and
corruption are responsible for prohibiting economic growth. Macleans
A. Geo-Jaja, associate professor of economics and education at Brigham
Young University, and Garth Mangum, professor emeritus of economics at
the University of Utah, argue that structural adjustment programs and
stabilization policies rarely have been effective. Rather, they
contend that the available evidence indicates that these policies have
"accentuated the deterioration in the human condition and further
compounded the already poor economic conditions in many African
countries."
Discussing the Issue
It is important to make sure that students understand the type of
structural adjustment reforms undertaken in Africa and the rationale
for these approaches. These policies were largely developed in
response to the Third World debt crisis of the 1970s. The basic aim of
structural adjustment reform is to balance state budgets and promote
economic growth. In exchange for loans, recipient countries agree to
undertake a series of reforms. Policy reforms under the structural
adjustment rubric in Africa include the privatization of inefficient
state-run enterprises (which, if they are inefficient enough, may be a
drain on the state treasury); a reduction of staffing and programming
in state agencies in order to cut costs; the devaluation of national
currencies in situations where they are deemed over-valued, and a
redoubling of efforts in the export sector to foster the generation of