World Prehistory S 2000 / Owen: Moche p. 1

World Prehistory: Class 20

Andes: Moche

 Copyright Bruce Owen 2000

Early Intermediate Period 200 BC-500 AD

emergence of complex chiefdoms and states with obvious very high status elites in several distinct regions, with different traditions

Moche, probably the largest and most complex, which we will focus on here

Nazca, on the coast to the south

Chiripa and Pucara, leading towards the Tiwanaku state on Lake Titicaca

some, like the Moche, arose in areas that had experienced Chavín influence

others, like Nazca and, especially, the Lake Titicaca area, were not affected by Chavín at all

development of highly elaborated ceramics, metalwork, and other crafts in many wildly different styles

which is why a few archaeologists once called this the "Master craftsmen" period, although the term never stuck

generally quite different from the Early Horizon styles that preceded them

rise of sizable residential towns (formerly few)

rise of fortified settlements (as opposed to fortresses without permanent occupation)

these were clearly intended for real defense

earliest at the valley necks, where the earliest canals were built

suggests that raids might have been over control of water and canal flows
as is expected in growing agricultural societies

but many people still lived in indefensible, small hamlets, too

tensions may have been triggered by the filling up of easily irrigated farmland, and the increase in competition and need for organization of larger reclamation works (canals)

by 100 BC, Gallinazo culture in the Moche valley (to about 500 AD)

Gallinazo style mounds and pottery found all the way up to the Ecuadorian border

direct predecessors of the Moche culture

marked population growth (reached all-time highs in Virú and Santa valleys)

large areas irrigated in the fans along the valley mouths

using canals starting at the valley necks

settlements became less defensible over time, suggesting regional unification

4-level settlement hierarchy developed

prior to the Gallinazo culture, sites had all been relatively uniform-sized, modest villages
presumably similar activities carried out at each
and presumably roughly equal in power
in Gallinazo times, there were sites in a range of sizes
many small, rural settlements, as before, plus:
some larger towns (“tertiary” or 3rd-level)
a few towns that were larger yet (“secondary centers")
one huge main site in each valley (several square km, although population estimates are still only in the “several thousands”)
suggests a single, valley-wide organization in each valley
based at the largest site in each valley

drastic variations in housing, from cane-walled shanties to solid adobe

suggesting significant differences in social status and material standards of living

monumental platforms built on the slopes of and on top of natural hills

mold-made adobe bricks

surrounded by settlements of up to 3000 people

Moche, starting around 1 AD, lasting to around 600 AD

Moche may have been not so much a new "culture", but a new ideology and corresponding art style developed by elites of certain Gallinazo groups

that is, a form of propaganda or supernatural justification for their position and demands on the society
because the main difference is just in the style of decorated ceramics; the rest of life does not seem to have changed much

Cerro Blanco

the most important Moche site
Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna
separated by a large space filled with courts, residences, workshops, and cemeteries
still over a square mile in area, originally more before Spanish destroyed an unknown fraction to mine the Huaca del Sol
Huaca del Sol
originally the largest structure of solid adobes ever built in the New World
and among the three biggest mounds of any type in the New World
only a part remains, because in 1602 the Moche river was diverted to hydraulic mine it
the scant records indicate that they found royal burials with lots of gold, which they melted down
recent work also finds high-status burials with decorated ceramics and occasional small amounts of gold and copper
380 m long, 160 m wide, 40 m high (1,235 feet x 520 feet x 130 feet) (about 1/4 mile long)
estimated over 143 million adobe bricks
had complexes of rooms on top
including courts, corridors, rooms that accumulated refuse, suggesting secular use by lots of people
built of wooden poles, probably thatched roofs

some were small, elevated, and contained a “throne”

rebuilt and enlarged over most of the span of Moche culture

Huaca de la Luna

Numerous painted relief murals

Unlike Huaca del Sol, kept clean

suggesting that it had a different function

Huaca del Sol is thought to have been more administrative, with politics and business conducted there

Huaca de la Luna is thought to have been a more ritual or religious structure

Contained (at least) two high-status burials

with the same kind of copper cups that are shown with “sacrificer” figures on pots

that is, real burials that contain the exact paraphernalia that is shown in what might seem to be mythological scenes on the ceramics

an even richer one was apparently looted in nineteenth century, with numerous gilt copper masks, etc.

And an area with layers of 35-40 sacrificed bodies

neck cutting trauma, random positions, left in open air and rain

possibly the result of rituals shown on pottery and performed by the people in the high-status burials

between the two huacas, a large (500 m wide) space full of perishable residences and craft shops

this was totally covered by sand; once thought to have been an empty courtyard, as in Initial period sites

but excavation has shown that the concept of this center was completely different from the Initial period ones

the residences are said to be of three levels of quality

with the highest status people living near the ritual monument of the Huaca de la Luna

and the lowest status ones living near the secular administrative center of the Huaca del Sol

evidence of craft work

beads, raw material (lapis), and stone drills

ceramics, metalwork, maybe shell work

evidence of long-distance trade for craft materials

Spondylus shell from Ecuador

lapis from northern Chile (if correctly identified)

Numerous other Moche sites also have big adobe platform mounds, often with painted relief murals

Moche art

sophisticated but highly standardized style

clearly implies manufacture by specialists

who must have had extensive esoteric knowledge of the iconography, not to mention the technology and art of ceramic production

much as the designers of stained glass windows had to know a tremendous amount of church arcania

mold-made ceramics

sculptural vessels

many are realistic human heads, so individualized that they are taken to represent specific people

actually, a limited number of people, shown at different ages

fine-line painting on simpler shapes

often showing standard scenes, or parts of them, that apparently were rituals carried out by costumed specialists

Drastic variation in burial richness indicates extreme status differences

Ordinary burials with nothing or a few pots

Medium-status Moche burials

extended body in a cane casket

a few pots, sometimes some other goods

High-status burials

such as the "Warrior Priest"

extended body in a cane casket

surrounded by lots of pots and other goods

Extremely rich burials at numerous Moche sites

Some in platform mounds (although this does not seem to have been the principal use of the mounds)

Some in deep, underground tombs without any surface structures

Sipán “royal” burials

several separate burials

in a mud-brick platform mound

lots of copper, silver, gold, ceramics, beadwork, human and animal sacrifices

specific burials correspond to specific figures depicted on Moche pots, based on unique ornaments and paraphernalia

thought to be specific ritual roles in ceremonies, occupied by a series of people like political offices

at Sipán, there are two burials of people who played the central figure’s role

suggesting that this role was an office that was filled by a succession of people

Other sites with similar burials

Señor de Sicán, similar

at San José de Moro, one was a high-status woman, also clearly linked to a specific character on Moche pots

implications:

the scenes on Moche pots really happened, or if mythical, were reenacted in reality by the people in these tombs

these people presumably comprised a powerful ruling class, based on or supported by their religious roles

they must have commanded huge resources of skilled labor and food production to produce the things in their tombs and elsewhere

large-scale specialized production inferred, and some found at various administrative/ceremonial sites

pottery factories with molds, kilns, etc.

deep, extensive piles of reject fragments, molds, ash, etc.

copper processing and fabrication shops

special hearths for smelting ore into copper

special grinding stones for breaking up slag and extracting the droplets of copper

metalworking shops with polished stone tools for hammering sheet metal, raising designs, etc.

must have been similar gold and silver shops, although they have not been found yet

weaving centers shown on ceramics, maybe found at Pampa Grande

BIG canal systems

large, planned field complexes, some with regularly-spaced mounds thought to have been for administrative purposes

more total area was irrigated in Moche III and IV than ever again until this century (and some Moche field areas still have not been reclaimed)

i.e. production organized by, and for use of, the state/elites

but note: the big field complexes appeared no earlier than 300 AD (Moche III), well after both Gallinazo and Moche were established

agricultural works may have contributed to increasing complexity, but not to its beginning

Warfare

walls enclose some ceremonial and high-status residential districts

this could be for actual defense

or to restrict access for ritual reasons

iconography

on pots and big murals

maces, shields, battle scenes, bound prisoners being shown to an enthroned figure, sacrifices

but some suggest that the hand-to-hand battle of overdressed warriors may be ritual, not literally warfare in our sense

weapons in burials

spear throwers, spear heads, maces, decorative armor, etc.

again, mostly highly decorated, maybe more for imagery than heavy use

but defensible sites went out of use

ineffective against a standing army?

maybe the Moche state forced people abandon them, as the Inka did later?

The Moche society centered at Cerro Blanco apparently became increasing secular and militaristic

eventually probably conquering a large part of the north coast

there may have been several competing, large Moche states, or maybe they were eventually unified

but the whole society was drastically altered from around 560 to 600 AD

several decades of drought, combined with disastrous El Niño rains

lots of farmland, canals, and some sites were destroyed by floods

drought would have greatly reduced food supply

and a natural process led to sand dunes burying the capital of Cerro Blanco!

an apparent "replacement" capital at Pampa Grande featured significantly different architecture and iconography

and was burned and abandoned around 700 AD

By this time, two complex societies were well established in the highlands to the south, Wari and Tiwanaku

The north coastal tradition continued with the later Chimu culture…

which was eventually conquered by the Inka…

but we have run out of time to go into all this!