The Inca (1200-1535)
Between 1200 and 1535 AD, the Inca population lived in the part of South America extending from the Equator to the Pacific coast of Chile. The beginning of the Inca rule started with the conquest of the Moche Culture in Peru. The Inca were warriors with a strong and powerful army. Because of the fierceness of their army and their hierarchical organization, they became the largest Native American society. The height of their reign in the 15th century came to a brutal end in 1535 when the Spanish conquistadors took over their territory.
Their cities and fortresses were mostly built on highlands and on the steep slopes of the AndesMountains. The architecture of the Inca cities still amazes and puzzles most scientists. Stone steps lead up to the top of the cities, which consist of stone houses and religious buildings. The blocks of stones weigh several tons and they are fit together so tightly that not even a razor blade can fit through them. The central city was mainly used for government purposes, while the citizens occupied surrounding areas. Their homes were made from the same stone material and had grass rooftops.
The Inca society was arranged by a strict hierarchical structure. There were many different levels with the Sapa, high priest or ruler, and the army commander at the top. Family members were councilors to the Sapa and even women had authority in the Inca hierarchy. The temple priests, architects and regional army commanders were next. The two lowest classes consisted of artisans, army captains, farmers, and herders. Farmers provided most of the subsistence for the rest of the population. They had to pay tax in the form of gold, which were distributed to the higher classes.
The comprehension of how irrigation can benefit agriculture is evident by the expansion into the highland areas. They developed drainage systems and canals to expand their crop resources. Potatoes, tomatoes, cotton, peanuts and coca were among the many crops grown by the Inca. Llamas were used for meat and transportation. Increased subsistence levels led to a growth in the Inca population. Since population was increasing and the organization of the Inca became stronger, the need for protection became necessary. They built enormous fortresses on top of steep mountains that enabled them to see their enemies and defend themselves. Even though the Inca never had access to the wheel, they built a sophisticated road system to connect the villages. The roads were paved with flat stones and barriers to protect the messengers, or chasqui, from falling down the cliff.
The highest point in an Inca village was reserved for religious purposes. This point was the closest to the sun, which represented their major god, Inti, the Sun God. The SunTemple, located in Machu Picchu, Peru, was a religious calendar that marked the winter and summer solstices. The Inca were not only fierce conquerors but they also had a violent punishment system. If someone stole, murdered, or had an affair with a Sapa wife or a Sun Virgin, they were thrown off a cliff, hands cut off or eyes cut out, or hung up to starve to death. Prisons were of no use because punishment usually consisted of death.
The Incas had an army which consisted of 40,000 people. The Spanish army in the Americas, which was commanded by Francisco Pizarro, had only 180 people. How could an Army of only 180 defeat an army of 40,000 men? There are three main reasons for this.1) Much of the Incan army died as a result of smallpox, which was carried to them via the Spanish Conquistadors. 2) The Spanish Conquistadors were able to convince other tribes, already under Incan rule, to side with them and over throw the Incan Empire.
3) The weapons used by Incan warriors, though effective in tribal warfare, were no match for the Spanish arms. By 1535, the Inca society was completely overthrown, and Pizarro moved the capital from Cuzco to Lima.
The Aztecs (1427-1521)
During the same period as the Inca Empire, the Aztec Empire dominated Mesoamerica from Mexico and Guatemala to the territories of Salvador and Honduras for nearly 100 years. This empire consisted of the native speaking people known as the Nahuatl-speakers and those of the Culhua-Mexico, who had migrated from the Pacific Northwest and inhabited the area which would become the capital of Mexico, Tenochtitlan. The people of this culture were refined workers, merchants, farmers and fishers. Also, they were fervent worshippers of the many gods of the Sun, and fierce defenders and conquerors of their territory. In 1519 when Hernan Cortes landed in this region and came upon this civilization, they were the sole heirs of a flourishing community. Only two years after his landing, the Aztec Empire crumbled and the capital was burned to the ground.
The Aztecs began their reign in 1427 after the leader, Itzcoatl, with the assistance of surrounding cities, defeated the Tepanecs and gained control of the Mexican basin. Leadership of the nation was passed on from brother to brother and then to the eldest son of the eldest brother. Leaders were then chosen by religious leaders and people of political power, based on their skills on the battlefield and their ability to speak eloquently.
For the Aztecs, warfare had a much different goal than for most of their counterparts. The goal of the battles was not to destroy the enemy and ransack the village but to capture the community and integrate them into the Aztec society, thus providing a much more productive and expanding kingdom. The temples of these cities were burned and the worship of Huitzilopochtli was installed. Warfare was also used to capture victims for ceremonial use. Prisoners of war were sacrificed on huge alters in front of large crowds. The heart of the victim was cut out, symbolically offered to the gods, and the lifeless bodies of the victims were rolled down the long stairs, staining the steps with blood.
Aztec religion was closely tied into the cylindrical system they adopted based on the cosmos. The Aztec god was a form of energy in one way or another. This energy could then be distributed to mankind through several different forms from lakes and streams to sunlight and wind. Each part of the Aztec world was represented in one fashion or another by some deity, which in turn either blessed or punished the peoples. These deities were then represented in the calendars of the Aztec, namely the Day-Count and the Solar Year. The Day-Count calendar was based on 20 day signs, (i.e. dog, water, deer, grass, etc..) and 13 day numbers. This was an endless cycle which constantly repeated itself, providing a 260-day year and determined the type of day it was going to be, based on the meaning of the signs. The Solar Year was used to determine planting and harvesting times and to organize festivities. This system was based on a 365 day cycle and when combined with that of the Day-Count, it provided a perfect 52 year cycle, which measured historical events for the Aztec.
The fall of the Aztec Empire was based not only on the actions of the Spaniards, but on the revolt of surrounding smaller communities which belonged to this huge collaboration of peoples. Cortes had found the weakness of this Empire that being the Empire was nothing more than a collection of smaller groups of people who were tied together by one thing: membership in this society. Many of these communities despised the Aztecs and wanted freedom from their rule. Cortes saw this and exploited it to its fullest. By gathering up more than 150,000 of these native peoples and 9,000 of his own troops, he completely dismantled the Aztec Empire and in the process gained control of those who were fighting for their own freedom. Finally, after the city of Tenochtitlan became infected with the small-pox epidemic, and half of the city was wiped out, Cortes seized the city and laid it in ruins. By August 13th, 1521, the Aztec empire was decimated and Spanish rule soon spread throughout the newly gained land.