Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology: The specialized study of how an individual’s physical, social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development occur in sequential, interrelated stages throughout the life cycle.
Developmental Psychologists study 3 main issues:
●Continuity and Stages of Development - gradual, continuous change or separate stages?
●Stability vs. Change - do traits continue throughout life, or change as we age?
●Nature vs. Nurture - do genetics or the environment play a bigger role in...?
Infancy and Early Childhood
Infants on average weight 7.3 pounds at birth and are between 18-22 inches long.
Unless a child is underfed, severely restricted in his/her movements, or deprived of human contact and stimulation he/she will develop more or less according to a typical schedule of maturation.
Maturation: Internally programmed growth that all children go through.
Newborn Reflexes
Reflexes: Inherited, automatic, coordinated movement patterns that newborns are born with and that can be triggered by the right stimulus.
●Some are linked to survival
ex) Rooting Reflex
●Others are used as signs of normal development
ex) Babinski Reflex
Development of Language
Language and thought are closely intertwined. Both use ______to represent objects and they go hand-in-hand when it comes to ______development.
No other species on the planet uses language, as humans do, to communicate an ______number of ideas (sentences) with a ______set of symbols (speech sounds and words).
Structure of Language
Phonemes: The smallest ______units of language.
ex) Puh, Mmm, Ahh, Eee, Ooo
Morphemes: The smallest ______units of language.
ex) The word disliked has 3 morphemes - “dis”, “like”, and “ed”
Grammar: The system of ______that governs how words and sounds can be meaningfully ______to form ______.
ex) One rule of syntax is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not “Read book the.”
Theories of Language Acquisition
Early Theories - Skinner (1957)
●As one of the pioneers of ______, he believed language acquisition occurred as a result of ______.
●Argued that children learn language based on the positive or negative ______they receive after utterances.
Ex) A child says “milk” and the mother smiles and gives her some.
Universal Grammar - Noam Chomsky (1950’s)
●Criticizes Skinner’s theory heavily, believing the process would be too slow to allow children to acquire the infinite sentences we use in language.
●He proposed the theory of Universal Grammar: an idea that children possess ______knowledge of the ______that govern language.
○Chomsky implied that all the world’s languages have common structural rules called ______.
○Each language then has its own specific ______that dictate the variability in syntax.
Zone of Proximal Development - Lev Vygotsky
●Focused on ______and the zone of proximal development (ZPD)
●The amount of learning a child can accomplish with ______from others. The difference between what they can do on their own, and what they cannot do.
●Language is obtained when children engage in social interactions with others.
●Designated 3 types of speech:
○______speech (out loud, to others)
○______speech (out loud, to oneself)
○______speech (silent, thoughts to oneself)
Critical Period Hypothesis - Eric Lenneberg
●Believed that the ability to acquire language is subject to ______
○______spans of time during which a person is ______to external stimuli and capable of acquiring certain skills
●Proposed a critical period for language acquisition from age ______
●After the onset of puberty (based on the ______of the brain) one cannot learn and utilize language in a ______manner.
Ex) The Case of Genie (1970)
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children. He used his daughter for much of his research, studying her and testing her as she grew up.
What did he do?
●Stressed the ______role of the child in gaining knowledge.
●Developed a ______theory for the ______development of children from birth to the onset of puberty.
How Knowing Changes
Each of us constructs ______, applying them and changing them as needed. We try to understand new objects by relating them to one of our existing schemas. ______and ______work together to produce intellectual growth and the child begins to understand things in new ways.
Schemas: Mental ______of the world
Assimilation: The process of fitting ______objects into ______schemas
Accommodation: The ______of one’s schema to include ______experiences
Ex)
Object Permanence
A child’s realization that an object exists even when he or she cannot see or touch it.
●Knowledge of things lies totally in the ______, they cannot imagine it, remember it, or picture it in their mind’s eye.
●If you take a toy and hide it from view, ______.
●Fades around ______.
This represents a huge stage in development where the child now realizes that people and objects exist ______.
Representational Thought
The intellectual ability of a child to picture something in his or her mind.
●The achievement of ______suggests that a child has begun to engage in what Piaget calls representational thought.
●Occurs at about ______.
●Another example of representational thought is ______.
Ex) Learning a temper tantrum
Conservation
The principle that a given quantity does not change when its appearance is changed.
●Begins to appear between ______
●Children under 5 are unable to think about ______at the same time.
Egocentrism
A young child’s inability to understand another person’s perspective.
●This causes many of the ______kids make in ______.
●Lasts until about ______
●The ______is one of Piaget’s inventions to test egocentrism.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage / Age / Characteristics- Knowledge is gained through the sense and motor activity
- Behaviour consists of responses to environmental stimuli
- Infants work towards achievement of object permanence
- Lacks operations (reversible mental processes)
- Use symbols such as language, numbers and objects
- Children begin to “play pretend”
- Children exhibit egocentric thinking
- Understands and applies logical operations (ex. counting)
- Begin to lose egocentric focus
- Still has trouble with abstract ideas and thinking
- Thinks abstractly, understands hypothetical ideas
- Capable of logic and deductive reasoning
Experiments with Animals
Imprinting
●______discovered that some animals become attached to the first moving object they see (usually their mothers) in a rapid, virtually permanent learning process called imprinting.
●Imprinting occurs during a ______, much like language acquisition
Surrogate Mothers
●______studied this critical period for attachment in his famous ______experiment.
●He attempted to discover what it was about an animal's mother that causes such an important attachment to form.
Human Infants
Many psychologists have seeked to answer the question of whether or not there is a critical period when human infants need to become attached to a caregiver.
●Infants begin to form an attachment to their mothers at about ______, once they are able to ______.
●This attachment remains strong between the ages of ______.
●By 3 years an infant has achieved the ability to ______their mothers in thought and can maintain attachment even when she is ______.
Mary Ainsworth
Ainsworth and her partner, John Bowlby, studied attachment between mothers and children using the ______. Based on this research she found three patterns of attachment and other psychologists have since added a fourth:
Characteristics of Attachment Styles
Secure Attachment( ) / Avoidant Attachment
( ) / Resistant Attachment
( )
Separation Anxiety / Intense distress
Stranger Anxiety / Avoidant of stranger when alone, but friendly when mother present / Ok with the stranger, plays normally when they are present
Reunion Behaviour / Child approaches mother, but resists contact, may push her away
Social Development
Socialization is the process of ______of the culture within which an individual is born and will live.
●Some social rules are clear and inflexible while others leave room for ______.
●Every ______has ideas about what is meaningful, valuable, beautiful.
●Every society ______people according to their family, sex, age, skills, personality characteristics, and other criteria.
●Involves learning to live with other people and with yourself.
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
●Id - ______, instinctual motives to satisfy basic needs and desires
●Ego - largely ______, realistic part of our personality that ______the needs of the id in ______ways.
●Superego - source of ______in personality, counteracts the id.
Psychosexual energy, or ______is the driving force behind behaviour. If a person fails to progress fully through a stage fixation can occur.
●Fixation - ______
Oral Stage (birth-1 year)
The infant’s primary source of stimulation is through the mouth (rooting and sucking reflexes). The mouth is vital for eating and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation. The infant is dependent on caretakers and develops sense of trust and comfort in this stage.
●Erogenous Zone:______
●Primary Conflict: ______
●Fixation: ______
______
Anal Stage (1-3 years)
Primary focus of the libido is on controlling the bladder and bowel movements. Developing control of these processes leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. Success may depend on the way in which parents toilet train. Children benefit from support and encouragement from parents.
●Erogenous Zone: ______
●Primary Conflict: ______
●Fixation results in either
○Anal-expulsive - ______
○Anal-retentive - ______
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
The primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age children begin to discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. Eventually the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent.
●Erogenous Zone: ______
●Primary Conflict: ______
______
●Fixation: ______
______
○Oedipus Complex - ______
○Electra complex -______
Latent Period (6 years - puberty)
During the latent period the libido interests are suppressed due to the development of the ego and superego. A time of exploration during which the child’s energy is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
●Erogenous Zone: ______
●Primary Conflict: ______
●Fixation: ______
Genital Stage (puberty +)
During this final stage, the individual develops strong sexual interests in members of the opposite sex. Interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
●Erogenous Zone: ______
●Primary Conflict: ______
●Fixation: ______
Evaluating Freud’s Theory
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson takes a broader view of human development in both time and scope. He recognizes the sexual and aggressive urges but believes the need for ______is just as important. He studied psychosocial development.
Psychosocial development: Life periods in which an individual’s goal is to satisfy desires associated with social needs.
In each stage of his theory a person faces a particular ______or conflict that represents an issue everyone faces. Development within each stage is affected by how other people respond to his/her efforts.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage:Infant (birth - 18 months)
Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Description: Development of trust depends on the ______and ______of caregivers. If care is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop trust they can carry to other relationships and will feel secure when threatened.
Positive Outcome: Child feels ______in the world
Negative Outcome: Child fears and believes the world is ______and ______
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage: Toddler (2-3 years)
Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Description: The child develops a greater sense of ______due to increased mobility and a greater awareness of their abilities and independence. Parents need to encourage the child in this independence while ______them from constant failure.
Positive Outcome: The child feels ______and ______
Negative Outcome: The child has feelings of ______and ______
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage: Preschooler / Early Childhood (3-5 years)
Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
Description: Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and social interaction. Play provides ample opportunity to develop initiative but If this tendency is squelched through ______or ______, children may develop guilt.
Positive Outcome: Child feels ______and able to lead others
Negative Outcome: Child has feelings of guilt and ______, and lack of initiative
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage: School Age (6 - 11 years)
Crisis: Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
Description: Through ______, the child develops a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. ______become a major source of self-esteem at this stage. If the child cannot develop skills they feel society is demanding they may develop a sense of ______.
Positive Outcome: Child feels sense of ______and belief in their skills
Negative Outcome: The child doubts his/her ability to be ______
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Stage: Adolescence (12 - 18 years)
Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Description: Teens are exploring their independence and developing a ______. This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the ______he/she will occupy as an adult. This includes social, sexual, and occupational identity.
Positive Outcome: Teen has a strong sense of self, and feelings of independence and control
Negative Outcome: Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel ______and ______about themselves in the future
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage: Young Adulthood (19 - 40 years)
Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Description: In this stage, people are exploring personal relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Positive Outcome: Those who succeed will develop relationships that are ______and ______
Negative Outcome: Those with a poor sense of self (from the previous stage) will likely have less ______relationships, and are more likely to suffer emotional ______, ______and ______.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage: Adulthood (40 - 65 years)
Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Description: We continue to live our lives, focussing on career and family. We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work and involved in the community.
Positive Outcome: Those who succeed feel they are ______to their world by being active in their ______and ______.
Negative Outcome: Those who fail to attain this skill will feel ______and ______in the world.
Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Stage: Old Age (65 - death)
Crisis: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Description: This stage is focussed on ______back on life. Productivity tends to slow down and we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop ______if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Positive Outcome: Those who succeed look back with few ______and a general feeling of ______.
Negative Outcome: Those who fail feel their life has been ______and have many regrets. They may feel ______and ______.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1968) studied the development of moral reasoning - deciding what is right and wrong - by presenting children of different ages with a series of ______.
ex) The Heinz Dilemma
What interested him was ______children arrived at a conclusion, what sort of ______they used to ______their response.
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
●Reference Group: ______
●The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a ______set of rules which he/she must ______without question.
ex) It’s wrong to lie and steal
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
●Reference Group: ______
●Children recognize that different individuals have different viewpoints, and there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. What is right is ______to one’s own ______.
ex) Stealing the drug helps his wife
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3 - “Good boy” and “Nice girl”
●Reference Group: ______
●Usually involves children entering their teens who see morality as more than simple deals. They believe people should live up to ______and community and behave in “______” ways.
ex) Heinz is good and kind, the drug sellers are selfish
Stage 4 - Law and Order
●Reference Group: ______
●People are more concerned with society as a ______. The emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one’s duty so social order is maintained.
ex) It’s illegal to steal the drug.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 - Social Contract
●Reference Group: ______
●People ask “what makes for a good society” and consider the rights and values they believe society ______. They evaluate situations based on this ideal.
ex) It’s ok because the druggist is being greedy
Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principles
●Reference Group: ______
●What is considered right is what would be done if someone had an ______respect for all people. Holds to the idea that the principles of justice are ______.
ex) They would all agree to save the wife.
To apply moral reasoning in the higher stages, children must be able to consider another person’s point of view (______). Yet this is no guarantee they will respect the rights of others (______).
Moral development is developed through social interaction and experience dealing with moral dilemmas in daily life. Kohlberg believed movement through the stages was sequential but not automatic. He thought the majority of people come to rest in Stage 3 or Stage 4.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
●Women are socialized differently than men
○concerns for the other - nurturing etc.
●Model is biased against ______worldviews and towards ______views
●Model is biased towards ______worldviews
●Does not consider the ______of reasoning, only the ______
●Does moral ______necessarily lead to moral ______?