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The social shaping of information and communication technologies
Karie Nicholas
23 July 2012
PSYCH501, Prof. Stella Michael Makri
Abstract
The shape information and communications technologies take is the shape of our future. These types of technologies are practically viral in their global dispersion and without a viable and universal psychological framework for the social shaping of them; they are likely to become a ‘colonization of the mind’. A review of a broad body of literature suggests that the inclusion of a psychological theory or framework for social shaping of ICT and other types of technologies is needed to address the digital divide between nations and between genders. The implication of this is that collaboration between designers and users is integral to the creation of a valid psychological framework for ICT development.
Introduction
Statement of the problem
In their article Socializing the digital divide, A. Genus & M.N. Mohd Ali examine the digital divide and the social shaping of information and communication technologies (ICT) and it’s implications for E-business development. They identify a key factor in the central idea of social shaping as being the choices ‘inherent’ in the design of technologies and present a definition of the Fourth World as “’black holes’ of information capitalism” created by the current globalization processes. (Genus & Mohd Ali, 2005) Not only is the social shaping of information and communication technologies important economically, it is also important because it affects the social-cultural values of the users and, consequently, often affects their lifestyles and general well being, often in unanticipated ways. Genus and Mohd Ali (2005) examined the effective use of technologies, social capital and ‘technological culturation’ as well as looking at what factors inhibit or promote ICT diffusion in developing nations and conclude that what is needed is a valid scale of measures for technology adoption in order to determine how long it takes for nations to adopt new technologies and what the variables are. (Genus & Mohd Ali, 2005) Similarly, in terms of cultural values or cultural capitol, what is needed is a valid “global community psychology” of technology interface which encompasses multi-cultural values and heuristics, that considers users psychological mindset and the needs that ICT can address. (Marsella, 1998) (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.)
The digital divide is mainly an effect of socio-cultural values and norms. It is not just found between cultures, but also within cultures. The digital divide consists of discrepancies in users’ accessibility, awareness, experience, literacy, economic, and socio-cultural values. (Leonardi, 2002) (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.) The Impact that ICT and the digital divide have on the cultural values of fourth world and indigenous cultures is profound and can affect a wide variety of things such as familial relationships or land-rights issues. (Belton, 2012) Indigenous cultures can either promote the use of ICT or inhibit its use and do so based on both their cultural values and the amount of discrepancies in accessibility, awareness, experience, literacy and economic factors. (Belton, 2010) Technologies have historically been colonial in nature, but ICT’s are often different in that they have the ability to transcend national and international boundaries allowing information dissemination to be more fluid, however it is still culture and gender bound by nature of the design source. (Belton, 2010) (Inayatullah, 1998) (Leonardi, 2002) (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.) I propose that one way to mitigate the negative impacts of ICT is by first examining the relationship between users and designers.
Definition of terms
Information and communication technologies or ICT: technologies such as the Internet, cell phones and social media. (Genus & Mohd Ali, 2005) These are the types of technologies that have a direct psychological and lifestyle impact at the individual level.
Fourth world: The Center for World Indigenous Studies uses this term for groups of people without or with little representation or for internationally unrecognized nations. Because of their lack of representation within the community of producers and stakeholders, Fourth World nations are not equal participants in the social shaping of technologies.
Future history: a prediction of future events based on historical patterns. (Inayatullah, 1998)
Information dissemination: the collection and dispersal of information. This happens more and more though ICT than through more traditional channels such as newspapers and even televisions.
Digital divide: “is a phenomenon associated with disparities between groups and societies in the adoption and diffusion of electronic information”. (Genus & Mohd Ali, 2005)
Psychological Challenges of Technologies
Two distinct patterns of psychological challenges in terms of ICT have come to the forefront during the course of this literature review, one is the digital divide between developed and developing nations and the other is the digital divide between genders in fourth world nations and traditional cultures. Technology is, in a sense, creating a new kind of tribe and it is these two demographics that are at risk of becoming the most marginalized. The concepts put forth by Marsella (1998) discussing a need for Global-community psychology, considers a global cyber-culture, which also gives raise to the issue of emerging global subcultures. The importance of global-community psychology is to ask questions about optimal human values and preferred behavior patterns in terms of ICT and other technologies in order to maintain its usefulness and meaningfulness. (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.)
Western culture has historically been a colonizing power based on technological leverage, from the spice trade in the middle Ages to the industrial revolution and beyond. ICT is just the newest globalizing Western technology and Marsella (1998) identifies it as having the same potential for the ‘colonization of the mind’ as the spice trade did for the colonization of nations. Ethno-cultural diversity has always been fundamental to human survival and the preservation or self-determined reinvention of social groups will be important in addressing the challenges created by the digital divide. (Marsella, 1998)
Additionally, historical patterns show us that technology stakeholders have been male dominated in the West, men being the primary controllers and inventors, and that ICT is consistent with those historical patterns where user demographics in fourth world nations and traditional cultures often consists mostly of well-educated, middle and upper class males, such as in the case of Middle Eastern and Latino culture in the US for example. (Anderson, 2000) (Inayatullah, 1998) (Leonardi, 2002)
This leads us to the second psychological pattern identified in this research, the digital divide between genders in fourth world nations and traditional cultures, which also has its roots in socio-cultural values. To complicate matters, gender-effects often include other variables such as awareness, experience, literacy and economic status to a greater extent for women particularly in extremely patrimonial societies. (Anderson, 2000) (Leonardi, 2002) Leonardi’s (2002) research shows that gender differences in the adoption and use of ICT is consistent with cultural values and norms of Latino culture. He looks at the Latino culture in the U.S. and the concept of machismo, as it is applicable to the use of personal computers and ICT. He notes that women were much more apt likely to apply anthropomorphic qualities to ICT technologies and to defer to the male as the head of the family when it came to use and adoption of new technologies. When questioned about how the use ICT at home, the women would most often defined the men as the controllers and make such comments as “he showed me how to turn it on once”. (Leonardi, 2002)
The pattern of use identified and values associated with technology realms and ownership is also consistent with research by Fair, Tully, Ekdale, & Asante (2009) who mention that most ICT users in Middle Eastern countries are men. Although the Middle East is unique in it’s self-determination of technology growth (being some of the slowest adopters) and creation being more often bottom-up and controlled by local or indigenous stakeholders, the gender gap in this area is one of the largest. Similarly, users in Ghana are more often men, however the gender gap is somewhat smaller and the between nations digital divide is much more pronounced. Like Latino women, the researchers also found that females in places like Ghana were dis-inclined to engage in discussion about technology deferring instead to their traditional norms and beliefs about gender roles. (Fair, Tully, Ekdale, & Asante, 2009) Most researchers looked at in this literature review suggest that because men have created more technologies world wide they are constructed with an inherent gender bias meaning that the means or production are controlled by men, availability and access is determined by gender, economics and education. (Anderson, 2000) (Genus & Mohd Ali, 2005) (Leonardi, 2002) If a global community psychology of technology is to exist, it will need to address the gender-digital divide as well as the socio-economic one.
Social relationships
”The new rules, symbols, and activities constitute a new subculture that has powerful socializing influences—it constructs a new personal and group identity in a structured space”. (Marsella, 1998) On of the consequences of the globalization of ICT is that it creates a fast moving, unparalleled clash of cultures. (Marsella, 1998) Social relationships are primarily affected at the individual level by ICT including such fundamentals as family relationships, religion and food consumption. ICT adoption has happened and continues to happen at a more rapid pace in under developed nations. For example, where the rate of new ICT adoption globally from the year 2000 to 2008 was 280%, the rate in Ghana was 1000%. (Fair, Tully, Ekdale, & Asante, 2009) Ghanaians are changing their social milieu when they use technologies for to bring new knowledge to their communities by “incorporating globally circulating cultural and symbolic forms into their identities”. (Fair, Tully, Oakdale & Asante, 2009) The researchers examine how connectivity re-configures communities in Ghana including the impacts these symbolic forms of self identity have in real-world relationships. This study focuses on Ghanaians who are using the Internet for social purposes such as dating and making friends and many people use Internet cafes that become part of the lifestyle. Participants noted that they found it easier to reveal their ‘true’ selves in virtual communication scenarios that have profound effects on their real lives and relationships. (Fair, Tully, Ekdale, & Asante, 2009) using technology within acceptable cultural parameters is important because the psychological mindset and socio-cultural values of a group are the driving factors behind their adoption and use of ICT. (Marsella, 1998) Although the researchers note that “multiple possible lifestyles are available now to everyone”, they also acknowledge that a gender dimension to Internet use and a cyber-lifestyle exists as well. (Fair, Tully, Ekdale, & Asante, 2009)
Social shaping dynamics
Referring back to Genus and Mohd Ali’s (2005) research on social shaping of technologies, we can note the differences between top-down and bottom-up technology design and shaping. Belton (2010) gives us an example of where top-down and bottom-up technology use happens in his research on the how indigenous cultures use cyber-space and the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues to promote their own right to self-determination. He suggests that the UN Permanent Forum provides a placed for indigenous people and stakeholders in the globalized economy and governmental sectors to interact. (Belton, 2010) Because cyber-space is relatively unregulated in some areas and can reach across international boundaries, ICT provides a mode in which many marginalized communities can come together to create a sort of mega-tribe. (Belton, 2010) This allows groups and communities to present their concerns and values in places like the UN Permanent Forum, and is creating a global world-view that is shaping the way indigenous cultures use ICT. The UN Permanent Forum is an example of a top-down design that is inclusive of its end users value systems is in collaboration with a bottom-up use of ICT to promote cultural wellbeing. Although ICT has other, often negative, implications for indigenous groups that might inhibit them from achieving their ends, Belton (2010) notes that “part of the promise of the Internet in achieving these ends lies in its alleged compatibility with indigenous communication styles”. The question then is, how compatible is the ICT with indigenous knowledge systems?
By contrast, J.W. Anderson’s (2000) article researches who and how technologies and the Internet are being produced and used in the Middle East. Middle Eastern countries have a slower Internet growth rate than much of the world and the user demographic consists mostly of well-educated, middle class males. (Anderson, 2000) Based on these facts Anderson (2000) discusses the appropriateness of focusing on the end users rather than the producers in researching the impact of technologies due to other national and religious values systems that also affect ICT and information dissemination in these countries. His research examines who the media technology actors are in primarily Arab countries and what their role in production is. He concludes that there are “no clear lines between creators and users” and this factor is one that profoundly affects the impact that technology development has on Middle Eastern society. (Anderson, 2000)
From the perspective of a technology designers and innovators, P. Mistry and N. Niranjan (n.d.) question the reasoning behind the development of technologies and their intended uses. As a case study of technology use for and by indigenous cultures, they give as an example the computer Kiosk initiatives in Indian villages, which “have been implemented by n-Logue, Drishtee, ITC e-Choupal, Media Lab Asia and other such initiatives.” (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.) Discussing the benefits, drawbacks and challenges of this program they identify the major problems of bringing meaningful and useful technology to “the masses” and identify the main challenges as: accessibility, awareness, experience, illiteracy, and economical solution. (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.). In response to this problem, and like ideas presented by futurists, they present a metaphorical framework using a mythic and symbolic tree metaphor for information dissemination and technology development as a solution “to help people understand their needs & think/choose solutions themselves.” (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.) This proposed frame work would have a profound effect on the way that ICT development happens, providing, essentially two way streets between designers, stake holders and users. (Mistry & Niranjan, n.d.)