Chapter 3: Learning and Memory
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
When students finish this chapter they should understand why:
· It’s important for marketers to understand how consumers learn about products and services.
· Conditioning results in learning.
· Learned associations can generalize to other things, and why this is important to marketers.
· There is a difference between classical and instrrumental conditioning.
· We learn by observing others’ behaviors.
· Memory systems work.
· The other products we associate with an individual product influence how we will remember it.
· Products help us to retrieve memories from our past.
· Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series of cognitive activities. Learning is an ongoing process.
It is useful in any study of consumer behavior to explore behavioral learning theories in order to gain insight into how consumers learn. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs as a result of responses to external events. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit the response as well. Several experiments that demonstrate this conditioning are discussed in this chapter. Through this discussion it is found that a conditioned response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in a process known as stimulus generalization. This process is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and family branding, where a consumer’s positive associations with a product are transferred to other contexts. The opposite effect is achieved by masked branding (where the manufacturer wishes to disguise the product’s true origin).
Another view of behavioral learning is that of instrumental or operant conditioning. This form of conditioning occurs as the person learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. Although classical conditioning involves the pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning conditioning occurs when reinforcement is delivered following a response to a stimulus. It is important to understand how conditioning occurs. Reinforcement is part of the process. Reinforcement is positive if reward is delivered following a response. It is negative if a negative outcome is avoided by not performing a response. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement is no longer needed.
A third theory is called cognitive learning. This form occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observational learning takes place when the consumer performs a behavior as a result of seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded for it.
The role of memory in the learning process is a major emphasis in this chapter. Memory refers to the storage of learned information. The way information is encoded when it is perceived determines how it will be stored in memory. Consumers have different forms or levels of memory. The memory systems are known as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Each plays a role in retaining and processing information from the outside world.
Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated into knowledge structures, where it is associated with other data. The location of product information in associative networks, and the level of abstraction at which it is coded, helps to determine when and how this information will be activated at a later time. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of familiarity with an item, its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the information was presented in pictorial or written form. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of how memory can be measured with respect to marketing stimuli.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. The Learning Process
a. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.
1) Instead of direct experience, the learner can learn vicariously by observing events that affect others.
2) We can learn without even really trying—just observing brand names on shelves. This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is called incidental learning.
a) Learning is an ongoing process. Our world of knowledge is constantly being revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback.
i. The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between a stimulus such as a product logo and a response to a complex series of cognitive activities.
Discussion Opportunity—Present the class with illustrations of learning vicariously and incidental learning in a consumer context. In reference to each of your illustrations, ask students what strategies marketers have used or might use to foster such learning.
2. Behavioral Learning Theories
a. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events.
1) With respect to these theories, the mind might be perceived as being a “black box” and observable aspects of behavior are emphasized.
2) The observable aspects consist of things that go in to the box (the stimuli—or events perceived from the outside world) and things that come out of the box (the responses—or reactions to these stimuli).
b. The previous view is represented by two views:
1) Classical conditioning.
2) Instrumental conditioning.
c. The sum of the activities is that people’s experiences are shaped by the feedback they receive as they go through life. People also learn that actions they take result in rewards and punishments, and these feedback influences the way they will respond in similar situations in the future.
*****Use Figure 3.1 Here *****
Classical Conditioning
d. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
1) Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus.
2) This phenomenon was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov’s “dog experiments” when doing research on digestion in animals.
a) Pavlov induced classical conditioning learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths).
b) The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response.
c) Over time, the bell became a conditioned response (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only.
d) The drooling of these canine consumers over a sound, now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR).
3) This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov primarily applies to responses controlled by the autonomic and nervous systems.
4) Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions (such as in automatically using a credit card for purchases).
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life as well as in advertising and marketing. Ask students if they think such examples represent intentional efforts to condition consumers. What are the strengths of these campaigns, if any? Be sure to point out the difference between true conditioning and mere association.
e. Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times (repetition). Notice how often ad campaigns are repeated. Repetition prevents decay.
f. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, conditioned responses. Pavlov’s dogs might respond to sounds similar to a bell (such as keys jangling).
1) People also react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; a generalization known as the halo effect.
2) Private brands often use “piggybacking” to build on impressions built by major brands.
3) Masked branding occurs when a manufacturer deliberately hides a product’s true origin.
g. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by an UCS. When this happens, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear.
1) Manufacturers of well-established brands urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations.”
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students the following: Can you think of some products that have similar packaging? Similar shapes? Similar names? To what extent do these examples represent stimulus generalization? In each case, which brand is the primary brand and which brand is the “me too” brand? Assuming the strategy was intentional, did it work? How can a marketer achieve stimulus discrimination?
Marketing Applications of Behavioral Learning Principles
h. Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli and responses. Examples would be:
1) Distinctive brand image.
2) Linkage between a product and an underlying need.
3) Brand equity is where a brand has a strong positive association in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.
4) Repetition can be valuable. Too much repetition, however, results in advertising wearout.
i. Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable association.
1) The order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Presenting unconditioned stimulus prior to the conditioned stimulus (backward conditioning) is not effective.
2) Product associations can be extinguished in the long run if not reinforced.
j. The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing brand or company name. Strategies include:
1) Family branding.
2) Product line extensions.
3) Licensing.
4) Look-alike packaging.
***** Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #4 Here *****
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to give examples of brands that they perceive have equity over other brands. As with equity of other assets (such as real estate), can an exact monetary value be placed on brand equity?
Discussion Opportunity—Have students apply the concept of stimulus generalization to real examples of family branding or product line extensions. Have them come up with examples where the stimulus was successfully generalized and examples where it was not.
k. An emphasis on communicating a product’s distinctive attributes vis-à-vis its competitors is an important aspect of positioning, where consumers differentiate a brand from its competitors. Stimulus discrimination attempts to promote unique attributes of a brand.
l. Concerns for marketers relating to stimulus discrimination include the loss exclusive rights to a brand name to the public domain and brand piracy.
Instrumental Conditioning
m. Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. This approach is closely associated with B.F. Skinner. (He taught pigeons and other animals to dance and play Ping-Pong using this method.)
1) Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex.
2) Desired behavior may be rewarded in a process called shaping.
3) Instrumental conditioning (learning) occurs as a result of a reward received following the desired behavior.
Discussion Opportunity—Have students brainstorm a list of examples of instrumental conditioning in marketing. Ask: Which do you think has more application to marketing—classical or instrumental conditioning?
Discussion Opportunity—Relate the concept of instrumental conditioning to the Internet and eCommerce through a specific example. Have students point out why they think this example is an application of instrumental conditioning.
n. Instrumental learning occurs in one of three ways:
1) When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened and appropriate behavior is learned (a woman wearing perfume and receiving a compliment).
2) Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that appropriate behavior is learned (a woman sitting at home alone because she is not wearing a certain perfume).
3) In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain things to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. We learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors (a woman being ridiculed for wearing the wrong perfume).
o. When a positive outcome is no longer received, extinction is likely to occur and the learned stimulus-response connection will not be maintained.
*****Use Figure 3.2 Here *****
Discussion Opportunity—What are some products that promise “good things will happen” if you buy their products? Can you think of products that tell you that you will be “punished” if you don’t buy them? Can you think of products where you are told that you will be “punished” if you do buy them or use them? How would this be possible?
p. An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. Several reinforcement schedules are possible:
1) Fixed-interval reinforcement.
2) Variable-interval reinforcement.
3) Fixed-ratio reinforcement.
4) Variable-ratio reinforcement.
Discussion Opportunity—Provide an example of each of the previously mentioned reinforcement schedules. Ask students: Which of these examples do you think is the most effective and why? Under what conditions can each of these reinforcement schedules be effectively applied?
Marketing Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Principles
q. Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer is rewarded or punished for a purchase decision.
1) Most companies reinforce consumption.
2) A popular technique called frequency marketing reinforces regular purchases by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.
3. Cognitive Learning Theory