Breastfeeding Revealed: Influence from Society and Partners

BREASTFEEDING REVEALED 1

Heather Evans

Southern Utah University

Abstract

For centuries women have struggled with breastfeeding. Whether it was for personal reasons or from complications that arose, one thing that has been recorded throughout time is how women have been influenced by society to not breastfeed. Why is that? Are young girls not developing self-esteem and confidence? Why has the importance of beauty and perfection superseded a woman providing nourishment to her infant by breastfeeding? History of women documenting the complications they faced with breastfeeding and the negative impacts breastfeeding had on social life has been documented as far back as 2000 BC. Women are stating that lack of support and knowledge, combined with perceptions of how her partner feels and low self-esteem from changes in the body have kept them from even trying to breastfeed. In our current times, a new direction is being taken to promote breastfeeding as part of a woman’s reproductive health.

Breastfeeding Revealed: Influence from Society and Partners

For centuries women have struggled with support regarding breastfeeding. Many women made the choice to either breastfeed or not very early on in their pregnancy. Some of the women who did choose to breastfeed often gave up shortly after the infant was born due to complications and lack of support.One thing that has been recorded throughout time is how women have been influenced by society to not breastfeed. Why is that? Are young girls not developing self-esteem and confidence? Why has the importance of beauty and perfection superseded a woman providing nourishment to her infant by breastfeeding? History of women documenting the complications they faced with breastfeeding and the negative impacts breastfeeding had on social life has been documented as far back as 2000 BC. A child can benefit greatly from being breastfed, and the mother can even gain some major health benefits as well. Women are stating that lack of support and knowledge, combined with perceptions of how her partner feels and low self-esteem from changes in the body have kept them from even trying to breastfeed. In our current times, a new direction is being taken to promote breastfeeding as part of a woman’s reproductive health.

A Brief History of Infant Feeding

Throughout time, several options were used or have become available regarding how a parent chooses to feed their infant. These choices include wet nursing, bottle feeding, and the use of formula. A wet nurse is, “a woman who breastfeeds another’s child” (Davis, 1993, p.2111). Surprisingly, wet nurses have been around as early as 2000 BC, and even extended well into the 20th century. Davis (1993) writes that wet nurses first started out to help women in need who could not nurse their own children and as time progressed from 950 BC to 1800 AD, wet nursing became more of an alternative of choice. The culture of Israeli women in 2000 BC believed that children were a blessing, and breastfeeding was considered more of a religious obligation (Wickes, 1953a).Because some women could not produce milk to nourish their infant, or the mother died during child birth, a wet nurse was sent in to feed the baby.

Now, let’s flash forward a little in time.During the Middle Ages, society had an entirely new and different outlook on breastfeeding and the use of wet nurses. People considered developing infants and children especially fragile to any influences, and it was believed the breast milk held magical qualities. Because of this belief, physical and psychological characteristics could be transmitted from woman to child through breast milk. It was valued as a “saintly” duty for a woman to nurse her own child (Osborn, 1979).

During the 17th century, societal class seemed to dictate weather a woman breast fed or not. Breastfeeding at that time was considered unfashionable, and because women worried that it would ruin their figures (Wickes, 1953b). Women were also unable to wear certain styles of dresses or participate in some social activities such as attending theater performances if they had an infant to breastfeed (Fildes, 1986). By the 1900’s the use of wet nurses ceased. The improvement in the design of the bottle as well as the availability of animal’s milk being used to supplement breast milk replaced the need and use of a wet nurse (Wickes, 1953b). By the 1940’s and 1950’s, formula had become ever increasingly popular, and was considered a safe substitute for breastmilk. After this time, the number of women breastfeeding declined rapidly until the 1970’s (Fildes, 1986).

From the 1970’s and forward, companies started to aggressively market formula in most developed countries. This was a huge money maker for companies. This led to a rapid decline in breastfeeding. But interestingly enough, this decline generated negative publicity for formula manufacturers which in turn led to the creation of groups of people aimed to establishment movements that would promote breastfeeding (Fomon, 2001). Some of these groups were: the National Council of Churches’ Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility and the Infant Formula Action Coalition. Both these groups placed a high importance on making the public aware of the importance of breastfeeding. So, over the next thirty years, thanks to these two groups, their efforts resulted in a very positive and steady increase in the percentage of infants that were being breastfed as well as mother’s breastfeeding their children longer (Fomon, 2001).

In more current times, it is believed that once again the development and advertisement of infant formula has caused a negative impact regarding the practice of breastfeeding, which factored in with society and culture influence. Kull et al (2011) found in their research that the development of atopy, diabetes mellitus, and childhood obesity shows increasing rates in formula-fed children. So the evidence is available as to why breastmilk is healthier than formula, yet this knowledge is overlooked by many and not placed as important.

Benefits of Breastfeeding

One main view has always remained clear throughout the history and documentation of breastfeeding, and that is the fact that breastmilk is the healthiest and ideal form of nutrition that a woman could provide for her child (Fomon, 2001). Breastmilk contains protein, fats, vitamins C, A, D, E, K, B1, B2, B6M AND B12, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic acid, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, iodine, sodium, potassium and chloride (Mannion et al, 2013). Kull et al. (2011) conducted an extensive study over a period of several years that followed 4,089 infants from birth to the age of two years, and found that exclusive breastfeeding for at least four months or longer significantly reduced the development of asthma and eczema. The study conducted also showed that breastfeeding lowers the risk of seroconversion for Type 1 and 2 diabetes and childhood obesity.

Current Times: What Influences a Woman’s Decision?

If studies have reported how healthy breastmilk is, and the benefits that both child and mother can receive from breastfeeding are well known, why is it that many women still choose not to breastfeed? During my research on this paper, I was sad to read that many women lack self-esteem and confidence, and that society has always played a huge role in negatively impacting how women view and feel about their body and appearance. However, I did find that people have always been trying to find a way to promote a positive outlook on breastfeeding, provide help and support that will encourage women to feel more empowered, and comfortable as well as confident in the decision to breastfeed.

Ryan (2012) conducted a survey across the United States and Canada that reported 59.7% of women in the United States breastfed, and Canada with a higher rate of 87% women breastfeeding. In this study, women in both the United States and Canada expressed that the main factors for not breastfeeding are lack of resources available to help aid and encourage breastfeeding, lack of accessible support from family members and friends when breastfeeding is difficult, and lastly, a woman’s perception as to how her spouse or partner might feel about her decision, and what it might do in altering her body to change in a negative way.

I italicized the word perception to highlight the importance of that statement. Some women are not communicating in a healthy and important way with their spouses or partners, so the assumption arises that breastfeeding will ultimately damage the body and they will be less attractive.

Mothers reported that when they received positive support from their partners, they then felt more confidence in breastfeeding efficacy and even the production of breastmilk (Mannion et al (2013). Basically, if the mother feels that her partner’s attitude regarding her decision to breastfeed is a positive one, she is influenced to continue breastfeeding. If that communication barrier can be broken down, mother and father can work together towards a unity that will provide support and encouragement to the mother, and a feeling of involvement with the father, and most importantly, the infant is provided with the healthiest possible form of nutrition.

Women in the study wrote that the biggest form of support and help from the father was with helping them position the baby for feeding and helping with housework. Women felt that they were being positively supported (Mannion et al, 2013). There are several challenges that can arise during breastfeeding, and that can be the physical discomfort from engorgement, the infant having difficulties with latching, constant fatigue, and the assumption that not enough breastmilk is being produced. Many women tend to give up if they cannot overcome some of these challenges or receive some type of help and support (Labbok et al, 2008). For a woman to be able to have her partner with her for support during some of these hard to manage troubles breastfeeding would be a more positive and successful experience and the rate of breastfeeding would increase.

I myself faced some of these obstacles when I had my first child, and although the thought of breastfeeding was slightly scary due to my lack of knowledge in the matter, I did have a very positive support group at my side to help me through my struggles.

So, what are some things that could strengthen the support from spouses and partners to the mother while breastfeeding? In the next section, we will look at what’s currently being done to help educate and support women.

A Focus on Support and Growth in Breastfeeding

In 2006, Aldinucci et al. discovered that by teaching father’s in a specifically designed support group about a woman’s fear of the inability to produce enough milk, having to return to work, and discomfort problems the mother will face such as engorgement, mastitis, sore and inverted nipples, and the infants refusal to latch on and ways for them to offer a solution and support along with preventive and management techniques resulted in significant differences in successful lactation and breastfeeding rates as opposed to fathers with no support or education on the matter. Since women have very strongly expressed that one major influence that could help her be successful in breastfeeding and feeling confident in her decision is the involvement of the father, a step forward would be increased efforts from health care professionals who regularly see the mother throughout the pregnancy, and on occasion the father as well.

The most interesting article I read was from the International Breastfeeding Journal about the determination from Women’s Feminist Groups that are aiming to eliminate social, economic and health inequities. These groups feel that breastfeeding should be valued as part of a woman’s reproductive rights and life. I never thought of breastfeeding being a woman’s right, but after reading documentaries and exerts from women’s journals depicting extremely negative remarks from family, friends, spouses and even employers about the hassle and inconvenience it is for a woman to breastfeed when she has other duties, I can definitely see how breastfeeding is a woman’s right.

September 24th and 25th In North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the Breastfeeding Symposium kicked off its third annual event, which was co-hosted by the Center for Women’s Health and Wellness, Universityof North Carolina, Greensboro (founding organization), and Center for Infant and Young Child Feeding and Care. This event included presentations and working groups to build and strengthen dialogue to increase communications between and among feminists, policymakers, researchers, breastfeeding advocates and practitioners to help promote breastfeeding as a woman’s reproductive health, rights, and justice concern (Labbok, 2013).

During this symposium, a few goals were established, such as the need to:

Create a “mother and breastfeeding” friendly health care system that will re-enforce breastfeeding as the normative approach to infant feeding.
Provide and enforce training to all health workers in providing support towards reproduction as part of health, and not illness.
Regulate securely the marketing of infant formula that targets health workers and the public, and of pharmaceutical labeling concerns.
The promotion in our culture and civil society to value women as whole beings.

One idea and goal that I would like to see really take off is more mother-friendly workplaces and workspaces being created that will provide working mothers the access and ability to pump breastmilk throughout their shift, or if on-site child care is present, then the ability for a mother to breastfeed her child in a private and comfortable setting that is designed for such purpose. This was briefly discussed at the symposium, along with employers offering paid maternity leave with a guarantee of return.

History has revealed the first records documented breastfeeding practices, why women choose not to, concerns and issues that arise that are finally being vocalized, and slowly starting to be tackled with solutions to these concerns and issues, and people who are trying to offer support and make a difference with introducing breastfeeding back into our times. I feel that the image of breastfeeding will continually be small steps forward with a few occasional steps backward due to the influence of society, marketing, media, more and more women working full time and having careers that are chosen over motherhood, and how young girls are being raised, and the women in these young girls lives who are role models towards them, which will influence how they become as mothers.

References

Aldinucci, M., Continisio, G.,Continisio, P., D’Amora, S., Pisacane, A., (2006) A controlled trial of the fathers role in breastfeeding promotion. Pediatrics 116(4), E494-E498.

Davis, F.A., (1993). Taber’s cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co.

Fildes, V. (1986).Breastfeeding and wet nursing.Midwife, Health Visitor & Community Nurse, 22, 241-247

Fomon, S. (2001), Infant feeding in the 20th century: formula and beikast. The Journal of Nutrition, 131(2), 409S-420S.

Kull, E., Lilja, G., Nordvall, S., Perhagen, G., & Wickman, M. (2011) Breastfeeding and allergic diseses in infants- A prospective birth cohort study.Archives of disease in Childhood, 87, 478-481.

Labbok, M,. Smith, P.H., &Taylor,E.C., (2008). Breastfeeding and Feminism: A Focus on Reproductive Health, Rights and Justice. International Breastfeeding Journal, 3:8. doi: 10.1186/1746-4538-3-8.

Mannion, C.A., McDonald, S.W.,& Tough, S.C., (2013) Maternal perceptions of partner support during breastfeeding. International Breastfeeding Journal, 8:4, 2-7. doi:10.1186/1746-4358-8-4.

Osborn, M.S., (1979) the rent bresasts: A brief history of wet-nursing. Midwife, Health Visitor & community Nurse, 15 (8), 302-306.

Ryan, A.S., (2012). The resurgence of breastfeeding in the United States, Pediatrics, 99, e12. Doi1542/peds.99.4812.

Wickes, I.G., (1953a). A history of infant feeding, Part I, Primitive peoples: Ancient works: renaissance writers, Archives of Disease in Childhood, 28 , 232-240.

Wickes, I.G., (1953b). A history of infant feeding, Part II, Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Archives of Disease in Childhood, 28 , 232-240.