Urbanization Issue in the Era of Globalization: Perspectives for Urban Planning in Kigali

Urbanization Issue in the Era of Globalization: Perspectives for Urban Planning in Kigali

Abstract

Kigali has embarked onrapid urbanization and modernization process. A growing number of its inhabitants, mushroom residential and business buildings, infrastructural development and a clean city are indicators of that dynamic among others. The housing issue,particularly for the lower and medium classes,remains howevera challenge which continuesto impact on their living condition but also on sustainable urban planning.This paper critically analyses thatissue from land and housing affordability perspective. It proposesa viable framework to create a sustainable and inclusive city.

Introduction

“A growing extent of social disorganization and crime is a function of substantial inequalities in access to land, housing and other services in the cities” (ConnellLea 1996, 177). Urban inequalities appear at the outset in residential standards through the extremely expensive houses and luxury flats on one hand and marginal constructions of shantytowns on the other hand. This is because policies are largely aimed at promoting economic growth rather than reducing problems associated with access toequity and distribution of urban services. Such problems are among current urbanization[1]issuesin developing countries. Urban planning policies and strategies are conceived in a globalization dynamic with creation of modern cities focusing on the development of infrastructures which facilitate businesses like towers, new tourist establishments, hotels,while less emphasis is laid on widespread problems of housing and promotion of access to the full opportunity of urban life for all urban residents.

More recently, the Government of Rwanda has elaborated a series of urbanization policies in an attempt to transformKigali a tool to envision the Rwanda’s future and development.In 2002, two years after the publication of the Rwanda Vision 2020, considered as a road map for the development of Rwanda, Kigali Economic Development Strategy was elaborated with a focus on “Building the Foundation to Compete in the Global Economy in the Future”. This themerelates to the importance of making Kigali a place that is attractive to, andsupportive of, business and investment, both within the Central/East African regionand within the world’s economy (City of Kigali, 2002). The Rwanda Settlement Policy and the Urban Infrastructure and City Management Program completed in 2004, and the Rwanda National Urbanization Policy published in 2007 all focus on Kigali City. Since 2008, Kigali Conceptual Master Plan (KCMP)projected in 2050 is under implementation.

Despite these policies and the related implementation processes, it appears thatthere has been increased evidence thatuncontrolled urban growth and housing remain the pressing issues in terms of making Kigali a modern and sustainable city.This isa consequence of 1990 civil war whichculminated into thegenocide perpetrated against the Tutsi in 1994. A big number of people displaced by the war and the refugees repatriated since 1994 converged in Kigali city. The rural-urban migrations continue to increase the population size of Kigali(Gazel, H. Harre, D. & Moriconi-Ebrard, F. 2010). This has therefore led to the problem of land and housing availability and affordability. Availabilityin this regards refers to access to urban land for housing. It is somehow complex because of urban land demand and planning strategies. Construction is only allowed inrestricted zones and strictly prohibited in the vast remaining administrative territory. The result is that plots and housing market become expensive, speculative and unaffordable forthe majority of urban dwellers. The affordability referstothe ability of households to repair loans used for the construction and purchase of houses, and to pay for the provision of services and related infrastructures (Kok, Hall Nieuwmeijer, 1992).

These critical issuesaffect mostlythe urban poor. There is spontaneous settlement by low-income households who settle in poorer neighborhoods located or created in the peripheryof the capital city to the extent that the spatial urban growth is difficult tobe managed.Although various measures and interventions have been undertakenfor urban development, the provision of land for low-income housing remains a very complex matter. The Kigali Master Plan and districts plans provide zones for that purpose but a high demand leads to the scarcityof affordable plots, which results into low-income housing shortages.The concern is that whilemany efforts have been made to implement the Kigali Conceptual Master Plan to modernize the city, spontaneous settlement continues to develop within the city and in its peripheries.

The modernization of Kigalito meet its requirements is crucial and not optional at this period of globalization and a world interdependence (Connell & Lea,1996). Urban modernization and creation of adapted infrastructures is necessary. However, high rate of unlawful settlementindicates the need to review and harmonize the urban planning policies and implementation strategies to the urban households’ capacities.This paper explores this problematic with the objectives to outlineperspectivesfor not only a sustainable city creation but also a “city for all”,an inclusive city.

Data presented in this paper are drawn from different sources: written documents such as books, articles, reports, policy documents; participative observation and analysis of urban dynamic for a period of five years, and interviews with different urban actors including planners, local leaders and population.

Urbanizationand globalization

Theworld system structure is arranged according to the global capitalism. This structure has a core, (developed countries), where production processes are advanced requiring massive concentration of capital and the highest level of skills; and a periphery (developing countries) that lacks capital, technologies, market power, wealth, and a bunch of the other vital valuables of production.Cities stand now as core on both internal and international levels. Theyare the centers of civilization, labor creation and international financial exchanges (Sachs, 1996).

Thepresent development dynamic requires the creation of modern and competitive cities capable of connecting global actors and economies (Peemans, 2008). Global economic system has shifted from one of protected or closed national economies, to open, liberalization and competition one.The nature of global competitionprogressively changed its nature from labour intensity in 1960s to capital intensity in 1970s, technology in 1980s and information in 1990s (Stopford & Strange, 1991). Badcok (2002) argues that,the cross-border mergers and acquisitions characterized by global and integration of international finance withglobal investment and markets in services (banking, insurance, hyper-mobility), financial markets globally linked and working around the clock,with action at a distance in real time remain one of the hallmarks of globalization.

Globalizationaffectsthe fate of cities abound. It facilitates the rise of mega-cities which are powerful enough to challenge the nation-state (transactions are mainly made between corporations) and to determinate its fate in terms of development.Cities became privileged and powerful world economic dynamic leaders. They concentrate population, centralize entirely important economic activities and contribute significantly to the global GDP growth. They generate more than 80 percent of global GDP today. Only 600 urban centers, with a fifth of the world’s population, generate 60 percent of GDP” (Richard & al. 2011).

The notable urban growth and economic role of cities have become more significant since the end of World War II because of modernization and globalization processes. In 1900, only 13 cities had over one million of inhabitants each one and 28 million inhabitants in total, butthe number increased to 66in 1970 accommodating 430 million of population(Bairoch,1977). Only 4 cities had over 2 million of inhabitants in 1900 but they grew to 10 in 1920 and 29 in 1950 (Moriconi-Ebrard, 2000). The majority was in the developed region, but recently theyhaveemerged promptly in developing countries.In 2000, around 111 of 165 cities of over 2 million populations all-over the world were located in developing countries (Cadène, 2000).In 2007, the 380 developed region cities in the top 600 cities by GDP accounted for 50 % of global GDP, with more than 20 % coming from 190 North American cities alone. The 220 largest cities in developing regions contributed another 10 %. By 2025, 136 new cities from the developing world are expected to enter the top 600; 100 of them from China and 13 from India (Richard & al. 2011).

The growth of mega-cities goes in parallel with the rapid increase in the proportion of population living in small and intermediate urban centers. Currently, more than half of the world’s population already lives in cities. Apart from the natural increase of the population, migrations are the main factors of urbanization. About 30 million people leave the land or small villages in the countryside to move to towns each year (Badcock, 2002).

Although the rate in some countries has been interrupted and is now at a low level in developed countries which are in the last phase of urban transition, it shows no sign of abating worldwide. An unprecedented population growth in urban areas has been taking place in developing counties, particularly in Africa, which are shifting from early to the second stage of urban transition (Figure 1). This is because of rural-urban migration (Moriconi-Ebrard, 2000).

Figure 1: World urban population trend, 1950-2050

Source: UN-Habitat, Planning sustainable cities, 2009

Africa is urbanizing fasterbut in a chaotic way. Inequalities in the cities and a high rate of slum population remain pressing challenges.The Gini index shows alarming rates in different cities[2]. The informal settlement and growth of slums with poor living conditionsincrease exposure to disease because of overcrowding, inadequate housing and poor access to water and sanitation that are typical of slums.Around sixty two percent of African cities are composed of slums, much of them on informal land arrangements (UN-Habitat, 2012).

The mismanagement of landand a poor governance framework are fundamental factors of urbanization challenges in Africa. There is a lack ofappropriate land management systems to deal with increasing shortages of serviced and well located land; peri-urban sprawl (often on customary land); pervasive land grabbing; widespread informal land delivery; cumbersome and expensive registration procedures; incomplete land records; under-resourced, inefficient, highly centralized land agencies; fragmented mandates involving several central and local government entities: inappropriate land allocation monopolies; gender exclusion; and poor public land management and corruption(Africa Ministerial Conference on Housing and Urban Development [AMCHUD], 2011). The creation of better-off neighborhoods and businesses leads to poor urban dwellers eviction and settle themselves in unsuitable zones.

Rwanda appears to be on good way with regard to land management.Land registration and management policieshave been elaborated and completed. Land tenure is legally ensured for every owner. Although efforts have been made in this regard, urbanization issues based on land issues are still alarming because of the rapid urbanization process. Since 1990, rural settlers havemigrated to development growth points significantly.From 3% in 1970 to 5.6 % in 1991, the urbanization rate has increased to 16.9 % in 2002 (National Census Service [NCS], 2002) and around 19.3 % currently[3].

That urbanization process has happened in a rapid and uncoordinated manner so that social services, employment opportunities as well as infrastructures are lagging behind. The urban population growth has intensified informal settlements on land that is considered inappropriate for development like steep hills or valleys with almost no amenities or basic infrastructure available. This has exerted further pressures on the already inadequate infrastructure and stands as an obstacle to the urban development, planning and upgrading. By projecting an increase of urban population to 27% in 2020, the target is to have regularly updated urban master plans and specific land management plans, and to develop basic infrastructure in urban centers for promoting the conditions of living of the growing urban population and the development of the country(Government of Rwanda [GoR], 2000).

Kigali, the capital and the biggest city of the country,is expectedto open a new era in the development of Rwanda. Since the beginning of this millennium the Government of Rwanda has embarked on developingKigali as a regional and a global leader in sustainable urbanization and improving the opportunities and potentialities of a modern and competitive city.

Kigali: towardsa modern and sustainablecity
From a village to a city

From a small hub Kigali has become a big city but with stillurban planning challenges. Kigali exists since 1907. It was created by Richard Kandt, in Gakinjiro, very close to the current Kigali City Market,as a German administrative residence. It remained a small colonial outpost with littlelink to the outside world until World War I. In 1916, Germans were defeated by Belgian troops, and Belgium occupied Rwanda until it got its independence in 1962. The growth of Kigali under colonial rule was veryslow, and was contained primarily on the top ofthe Nyarugenge hill. Wautersargues that Kigali was a small village with primarily administrative functions in 1962(quoted by Sirven, 1984). Its population was estimated to 6000 inhabitants on 2.5 km². From then on the city expandedto 112 km² in 1990. The administrative reforms of 2000 and 2005 extended the city boundaries to 314 km² in 2000 and 730 km² since 2005 (GoR, 2005).

The urban population increased likely. From 1962 to 1991, the population ofKigali increased rapidlyfrom around 6,000 people to nearly 235,664. Despite the war and the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi ensuing chaos that reduced significantly its population to around 50,000 in 1994, Kigalihas continued to grow. The general census of 2002 showed that the population of Kigali was already 608,141 inhabitants, that is an average annual growth rate of 9% since 1991(HERA-SHER, 2006; SNR, 1978 & 1991).Currently Kigali counts 1,135,428 inhabitants (MINECOFIN, 2012).The reasons for this population growth include a high birth ratecombined with a high level of positive net migration[4].

In its urbanization process, Kigali followed a concentric urban land use model from the CBD, to low-class and medium class residences areas and modern, high-class housing in the suburbia. After the independence and particularly since 1990s the city started to grow rapidly in a spontaneous, uncontrolled and haphazard way. Kigali has been witnessing an unprecedented urbanization rate which has resulted in rapid urban expansion beyond the control of local and urban authorities. Urban development has occurred in wetland areas and areas of steep slopes. Around 19% of the built environment of Kigali is on land that is not ideal for development (Kigali City, 2007). In a bid to manage the proper land use, the city has been extended to huge fringes of per-urban and agricultural land zones engulfing rural residents which become submissive to urban regulations but this did not limit the informal settlement. The urban mosaic is now characterized by modern offices, hotels, business buildings and an urban divide observed from luxury dwellings and neighborhoods for the elite which co-exist with the low income squatters and spontaneous areas.

Rapidly increasing inequality, rising informality and mushroom of urban slumsand informal settlements as well as low levels of quality of life are experienced.

After the 1994 genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi planned estates have been developed in different areas like Nyarutarama, Gacuriro, Kagarama, Gisozi, etc.

Urbanization has not been matched with a corresponding increase in provision of services and infrastructures facilities to the majority of the urban dwellers like transportation, housing, education, health,sewage and sanitation infrastructures. Over 70% of Kigali city is occupied by informal settlements; most of which are found in poor neighborhoods. The 2002 general census revealed that around 58 % live in spontaneous settlements and 22.8 % in isolated ones. While 43.1% live in their own houses, 47.6 % are tenants. There are inadequate urban services and few amenities. Only 20 % have water in their households, 45 % buy water from vendors while 28.4 % fetch water from boreholes and natural springs. Only 37.2 % have access to power energy. Traditional pit latrines are dominant excreta management systems: 51% private latrines and 44.4 % public ones compared to only 3.4 % households who use automatic flushing toilet and 1.1 who do not have toilet at all(NCS, 2002). Only 30% of Kigali is covered by paved runoff water infrastructure, and all this is found along main roads and in the city centre (Sano, 2007).

As a metropolis city with varied populationand such urbanizationproblems, there is a need for a sustainable planning and urban development to enable Kigali and its population to maximize its economic potential such asincreasing jobopportunities and income, and toidentify ways of enhancing the revenue capacity required to meet its social-economic service needs.

3.2.Kigali Conceptual Master Plan, a key tool for urban development

KCMPstands as a tool toaddress the urbanization challenges that Kigali has undergone for a long period and to sign the urban renewal, upgrading and sustainable urbanism. This requires the infrastructure improvements toachieve sustainable urban settlements by prioritizing retrofitting of infrastructure in informal settlements and incorporating cutting edge appropriate and affordable technologies.It requires alsoaffordable housing for both lower and middle income familiesand to explore and test new housing technologies in Kigali (Kigali City, 2007).

The overarching goal of KCMP is to ensure sustainable urban development by using Rwanda’s natural and human resources through the balancing of ecology, equity, and economy. By searching the way to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations, this goal aims toprotect the natural environment, exercising “best practices” to minimize environmental degradation, pollution and waste; to promote equitable solutions that protect the interests of all people including marginal populations; to support economic development opportunities for all with appropriate urban development and infrastructure and to ensure urban economic growth that will play a dynamic role in facilitating national economic growth of Rwanda (Kigali City,2007).