The Use of Observation in Architectural Research in Nigeria
A WRITE UP
ON
THE USE OF OBSERVATION IN ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH IN NIGERIA
BY
ROTIMI OLUWASEUN OLADELE
(ARC/ 01/ 9249)
SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STIUDIES
FEDERALUNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURE
COURSE
ARC 805
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COURSE LECTURER
PROF. O.OOGUNSOTE
MARCH 2008
ABSTRACT
An experiment is a set of observations performed in the perspective of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empirical approach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physical world.
Observational studies are very much like controlled experiments except that they lack probabilistic equivalency between groups. These types of experiments often arise in the area of medicine where, for ethical reasons, it is not possible to create a truly controlled group. For example, one would not want to deny all forms of treatment for a life-threatening disease from one group of patients to evaluate the effectiveness of another treatment on a different group of patients. The results of observational studies are considered much less convincing than those of designed experiments, as they are much more prone to selection bias. Researchers attempt to compensate for this with complicated statistical methods.
Observation is a direct means of studying the obvious conduct of people or professionals. key benefits of observation research is that it is possible to record behaviour as it take place, often the respondent is unaware that they are being observed; permitting their behaviour to be observed naturally. This paper sheds more light on the essence of observation in researches.
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.2SCOPE OF STUDY
1.3LIMITATION OF STUDY
1.4EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
1.5RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.6DEFINITION OF TERMS
2.0OBSERVATIONAL FIELD RESEARCH
2.1APPROACHES TO OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
2.1.1COVERT OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
2.1.2OVERT OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
2.1.3RESEARCHER PARTICIPATION
2.2TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS
2.2.1DIRECT (REACTIVE) OBSERVATION
2.2.2UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATION
2.3INTERPRETATION OF OBSERVATIONAL VARIABLES
2.3.1DESCRIPTIVE
2.3.2INFERENTIAL
2.3.3EVALUATIVE
2.4COLLECTING INFORMATION THROUGH OBSERVATION
2.4.1NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
2.4.2UNCONTROLLED OBSERVATION
2.4.3CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
3.0OBSERVER'S ROLE
3.1MAKING NOTES IN THE FIELD
4.0CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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1.0INTRODUCTION
Anextensive ranging set of research techniques is aimed at examining interactions naturally with their surroundings. Focus groups, interviews, intercepts, and questionnaire surveys generally elicit secondary accounts; such self report data is subject to many sources of error, including memory effects, and the comatose motivations of respondents to tell the interviewer what they think the interviewer wants to hear.
Direct observation can negate much of this error, by relying on pure observed behaviour rather than secondary accounts of that behaviour. One example is the videotaping of actions on field, where a structured checklist is used to record behaviour; another is the tracking of eye movements by the observer.
Popular forms of observational research include the mystery shopper to test quality of the work experience in an enclosed environment. Others include the disposable camera technique, where respondents are asked to take snapshots of behaviours naturally.
1.1AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the use of observation as a research tool in architectural research. The objectives are:
- To identify the advantages and disadvantages of observational research compared to other research methods.
- Understanding the strengths and weaknesses in the validity of observational research findings.
- Identifying what to do in a behaviour study and how best to carry out observation in architectural research.
1.2SCOPE OF STUDY
This study will be restricted to the use of Observation as a tool in research works. The different types of observation that could be used, the advantage of observation over other techniques and how efficiently it can be used to yield the desired result in research.
1.3LIMITATION OF STUDY
The limitation encountered in the course of carrying out this work includes the Absence of resourceful information in the university library.
1.4EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
It is expected that this work will be of assistance to architects, planners, urban designers and other related professionals who may be involved in one form of observational research or the other.
1.5RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The information used for this write up was derived from secondary sources such as literature (published and unpublished), textbooks, lecture notes, journals, magazine and the Internet.
1.6DEFINITION OF TERMS
- INTERCEPTS
The term Intercepts defines a broad series of short interviews, usually only a few minutes in length which are carried out "in-situ" with those involved in the action observed.
- SURVEYS
Surveys are the most widely used set of methods in research. It is a very broad term used to describe the collection of data from multiple sources. Surveys can be conducted by mail, face-to-face, telephone, email, Web, observation, focus groups, content analysis, or other methods.
- FOCUS GROUPS
A qualitative research methodology where subjective opinions and perceptions of a small targeted group of people on a certain topic are elicited is what is referred to as focus groups.
Focus group contributor usually provides verbatim transcripts of the focus group, translated if necessary, sometimes a short summary, and always the raw data.
- SHORT TERM OBSERVATION
Short term observational studies present findings of short term qualitative study based on recorded observation. Short term observational studies focus more narrowly on specified categories of group behaviours. This type of research functions well as a means of fetching out quantitative research that would otherwise do little more than list numerical data. The observer studies a set of individuals in their natural setting as opposed to a experimental setting, thus this type of research is known as fieldwork.
- MYSTERY SHOPPER TECHNIQUE
Anexpress observational research method, the Mystery shopper Technique is used exclusively in the retail rather than the broader service industry. Field workers assume the role of shoppers to collect structured data.
- DISPOSABLE CAMERA TECHNIQUE
An observational research involving distributing disposable cameras to research participants, recording snapshots of their social groups using or interacting with specific products, services or classes of such is what is referred to as this method of observation.
2.0OBSERVATIONAL FIELD RESEARCH
Observational research techniques solely involve the researcher making clarification. There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach. Observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis (i.e. a hypothesis is a statement about what you expect to observe). For instance, before undertaking more structured research a researcher may conduct observations in order to form a research question. This is called descriptive research. In terms of validity, observational research findings are considered to be strong.
Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to amass a depth of information about a particular behaviour. However, there are negative aspects. There are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers the extent that observations can be replicated. In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique population and therefore cannot be generalized to others. There are also problems with researcher bias. Often it is assumed that the researcher may see what they want to see. Bias, however, can often be overcome with training or electronically recording observations. By and large, observations are a valuable tool for researchers.
Observational research or field research is a social research technique involving the direct surveillance of phenomena in their natural state. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experiment.
Compared with experimental research, observational research tends to be less reliable but often more valid. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Also it measures behaviour directly, not reports of behaviour or intentions. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables.
Traditionally, the period of observation for a qualitative observational study has been from six months to two years or more. Today, it is generally acceptable to study groups for less than six months, provided that the researcher triangulates the research methods. The more time spent in the field the more likely the results will be viewed as credible by the academic community.
Plates showing students’observation of a site construction process of SEMES building, FUTA
Source: Researchers Field Work (2005)
2.1APPROACHES TO OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Generally, there are three approaches toobservational research:
2.1.1COVERT OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
The researchers do not identify themselves. It’s either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. Some researchers have ethical reservations with the deceit involved in this approach. The advantages of this approach are that it is not necessary to get the respondent’s cooperation and his actions will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher.
2.1.2OVERT OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is that the respondent’s tend to modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their ideal self rather than their true self.
2.1.3RESEARCHER PARTICIPATION
The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena. Researchers that participate tend to lose their objectivity.
2.2TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS
2.2.1DIRECT (REACTIVE) OBSERVATION
In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. The only danger is that they are reacting to you. There is a concern that individuals will change their actions rather than show you what they are really like. This is not necessarily bad, however. For example, the contrived behaviour may reveal aspects of social desirability, how they feel about sharing their feelings in front of others. Even the most contrived behaviour is difficult to maintain over time. A long term observational study will often catch a glimpse of the natural behaviour. Other problems concern the generalizability of findings in that the sample of individuals may not be representative of the population.
The two commonly used types of direct observations are:
- CONTINUOUS MONITORING
Continuous monitoring involves observing a subject and recording (either manually, electronically, or both) as much of their behaviour as possible. Continuous Monitoring is often used in situations such as evaluating performance on site. Yet this may be problematic due to the Hawthorne Effect. The Hawthorne Effect states that workers react to the attention they are getting from the researchers and in turn, productivity increases. Observers should be aware of this reaction. Other Continuous monitoring research is used in education, such as watching teacher-student interactions. Continuous monitoring is relatively easy but a time consuming endeavour.
- TIME ALLOCATION
Time Allocation involves a researcher randomly selecting a place and time and then recording what people are doing when they are first seen and before they see you. This may sound quite bizarre but it is a useful tool when finding out the percentage of time people are doing things. There are several sampling problems with this approach. First, in order to make generalizations about how people are spending their time on site the researcher needs a large representative sample. In addition, questions such as when, how often, and where should be observed are often a concern. Many researchers have overcome these problems by using nonrandom locations but randomly visiting them at different times.
THE ADVANTAGE OF DIRECT OBSERVATION
The great advantage of observational techniques is that we can observe directly the behaviour of people, rather than self reported behaviour. This eliminates one of the major causes of error in research - memory loss, poor recall, and perceptions affected by experiences after the original experience. It also reduces error due to translation, and provides a richer dataset that includes non-verbal and physical behaviour. Just like in other regions, what is said is often different from what is actually done.
Though generally it is more expensive, observational techniques are often of higher value than the cheaper self report methods, simply because they focus on actual behaviour.
2.2.2UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATION
Unobtrusive measures entail any method for studying behaviour where individuals do not know they are being Watched. In this case, there is no concern that the observer may change the subject's behaviour. When conducting unobtrusive observations, issues of validity need to be considered. Numerous observations of a representative sample need to take place in order to generalize the findings. This is especially difficult when looking at a particular group. Many group pose unique characteristics which make them interesting studies. Hence, often such findings are not strong in external validity. Also, replication is difficult when using non-conventional measures. Observations of very specific behaviours are difficult to replicate in studies especially if the researcher is a group participant. The main problem with unobtrusive measures, however, is ethical issues involving informed consent and invasion of privacy. An institutional review board may frown upon this study if it is not really necessary to inform the subjects under study.
The two types of unobtrusive research measures that may be undertaken in the field are:
- BEHAVIOUR TRACE STUDIES
Behaviour trace studies involve findings things people leave behind and interpreting what they mean. This can be anything to vandalism to garbage. Bearing in mind that in unobtrusive research individuals do not know they are being studied. Various researchers support the idea as long as their identities were kept confidential. Trace studies may yield enormous data.
- DISGUISED FIELD OBSERVATIONS
In Disguised field analysis the researcher pretends to join or actually is a member of a group and records data about that group. The group does not know they are being observed for research purposes. Here, the observer may take on a number of roles. First, the observer may decide to become a complete-participant in which they are studying something they are already a member. It may be decided that participation is casual in the group while collecting observations. In this case, any contact with group members is by acquaintance only. Ethically, these observers have the most problems; there are degrees of deception at work. The sensitivity of the topic and the degree of confidentiality are important issues to consider. Altogether, disguised field experiments are likely to yield reliable data but the ethical dilemmas are a trade-off.
2.3INTERPRETATION OF OBSERVATIONAL VARIABLES
Before starting a research project the mode of interpreting the observations should be known. The 3 (three) methods of interpreting observed variable are as follows:
2.3.1DESCRIPTIVE
Descriptive observational variables require no assumption making on the part of the researcher. What you see is what you write down.
2.3.2INFERENTIAL
Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences about what is observed and the underlying emotion. For instance, one may observe a girl banging on her keyboard. From this observation it may be assumed that she is frustrated with the computer.
2.3.3EVALUATIVE
Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a judgment from the behaviour. For example, you may question whether computers and humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You observe the girl banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do not have a positive relationship (this finding has to be replicated).
When writing field notes the researcher should include descriptive as well as inferential data. It is important to describe the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. All such things that may change behaviour need to be noted.
2.4COLLECTING INFORMATION THROUGH OBSERVATION
Observation is a tremendously imperative principal tool of scientific research as Science begins with observation for its final validation. When looking at something that is happening, what individual person sees depends on his interest which determines his pattern of selective observation. For observation to be useful as a tool of educational research, the following conditions must be fulfilled
- It should be used to serve a clearly stated research problem.
- The planning and the recording system must be related to a research hypothesis.
- The records of observations could be checked for validity and reliability.
These conditions nevertheless, do not rule out accidental observations that could lead to results of great significance. There are many ways of using observation as method of collecting data and studying participants.
2.4.1NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation is a type of observational study where participants’ spontaneous behaviour is recorded in their own environment. Interference is kept to a minimum and therefore such studies are said to have high ecological validity. However, because variables are not manipulated they are said to lack control. This lack of control makes replication difficult and there are also risks of observer bias and ethical issues of invasion of privacy.
2.4.2UNCONTROLLED OBSERVATION
In uncontrolled observation, there are no definite laid down rules and procedures. The observer must be prepared to take his clues from unexpected events. It is helpful to use some sort of check list as is given below to guide the direction of observation.
1.The kind and status of people Involved and the relationship between them.
2.The Settings, whereand likeable behaviour that the setting encourages or discourages.
3.The behaviour to be observed;what do those to be observed do, with whom and with what do they do it
4.The Frequency, type, time and Duration of event.
The researcher will find it very helpful to keep a record of both the observation and the interpretation of the observation. The researcher should not make the mistake of thinking that a comment or an event is so striking that it will not be forgotten. It is better to write out the details during the early part of the investigation because later the details will fade away or taken for granted.
2.4.3CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
Controlled observation is a type of observational study where the conditions are unnatural by the researcher. This type of observation may be carried out in a laboratory situation and because variables that are manipulated is said to be high in control. The weakness of the method is that it will be low in ecological validity.