The Turbulent Sixties

The Turbulent Sixties

(Kennedy-Nixon)

1. John F. Kennedy, democrat, was elected President of the United

States during the Election of 1960. John F. Kennedy served from

1961 to 1963. His vice president was Lyndon Baines Johnson,

democrat from Texas. Kennedy was 42 when elected president. He

was the only catholic ever elected and the youngest president.

The election of 1960 was a highly contested election. John F.

Kennedy, democrat, was running against Richard Nixon,

republican. Both were former friends who had served in the

Senate together. Both were very popular and the vote was close.

Kennedy barely won the election and many historians say it was

because the Chicago Graveyard votes. The republicans felt that

it was a stolen election and that Richard Nixon truly won the

Presidency. Nixon had served as the VP under President

Eisenhower and will later run for the United States Presidency

again and will be elected. This was the first election where TV

took hold of voting, shaping political opinions and influencing

voters. The first televised debates were aired between Kennedy

and Nixon. Kennedy appeared charismatic and Nixon very

stoic. Nixon had recently undergone knee surgery and was in

severe pain standing for long periods of time. Kennedy won the

debates.

B. Main issues of the campaign: Cold War and the economy.

Both candidates promised to boost the economy and portrayed themselves as “Cold Warriors.” In other words, they both pledged to stop the spread of communism. Kennedy feared a “missile gap” stating that the United States lagged behind the Soviet Union in missile production. Nixon denied this claim and urged Americans to look at his experience—he had the experience to guide America in the Cold War—he had been VP to Eisenhower. Americans feared the spread of communism and elected Kennedy.

Kennedy Mystique: Catholic & young—brought a Camelot appeal to the presidency. He had a young wife, Jacqueline, and 2 small children: Caroline and John Jr. Reporters followed the family everywhere. He also had a large extended family, many involved in politics.

Kennedy’s Domestic Programs & International Affairs
New Frontier: Kennedy’s legislative agenda—proposed

legislation. The New Frontier proposed to: (a) aid

education, (b) create a Dept. of Urban Affairs, (c) help

migrant workers, and (d) improve the American economy.

Many of his programs were blocked by republicans and

southern democrats. Democrats from the south feared that

the New Frontier gave the President to much power and

spent excessively—they opposed the program.

During JFK’s presidency he promoted women’s rights. He

created the Presidential Commission for the Status of

Women and appointed Esther Peterson to the Women’s

Bureau of the dept. of Labor.

The Supreme Court made several rulings that change

domestic life in America. The Supreme Court Chief Justice

was Earl Warren. He was nominated by Eisenhower

(Republican) in 1953. The court became known as the

Warren Court. Due Process was extended to the states.

This meant that the 14th Amendment was extended to state

governments and that no individual could be treated

unfairly and that the courts must follow consistent

procedures when trying individuals. Warren Court ruled

on several cases that extended individual rights through due

process. Examples were:

(a)Brown v. Board of Education1954: segregation in public

schools was ruled to be unconstitutional;

(b)Baker v. Carr 1962: federal courts would hear law suits

that sought to make states redraw electoral districts.

This case ruled one man one vote—equal representation

in voting districts. This outlawed gerrymandering—

creating voting districts to ensure a specific party

victory.

unlawfully could not be admissible into court—illegal!

(d) Gideon v. Wainwright 1963:suspects who were arrested

were entitled to a court appointed attorney if they could

not afford one.

(e) Escobedo v. Illinois1964: a person accused has a right

to an attorney during questioning.

(f)Miranda v. Arizona 1966: a policeman must inform a

person of the rights before they are arrested (you have

the right to remain silent, to an attorney, etc.).

(g)Engle v. Vitale 1962: state mandated prayer is schools

was ruled unconstitutional—outlawed teacher/principal

led school prayer.

4. Kennedy & the Cold War

(a)Flexible response Doctrine: Kennedy felt that

Eisenhower relied to heavily upon nuclear weapons and

that they should only be used in EXTREME situations.

JFK developed the flexible response doctrine which

stated that if nations needed help fighting off communist

nations, the president would push for a build u of

weapons and troops. JFK created the military “Special

Forces” which were a unit specifically designed to fight

guerilla warfare. This group became known as the

Green Berets.

(b)JFK sent aid to other nations. Especially Latin

America. He created the Alliance for Progress which

was a plan to aid Latin American governments. Over 10

years the USA pledged $20 billion to help Latin America

fight communism.

of young Americans who went to 3rd world countries to

provide humanitarian services and provide stability.

(c)JFK institutes the Space Race! JFK stressed sending a

man to the moon. He felt that this was essential to

proving that capitalism was better than communism—

why? Who knows! In 1962 John Glenn became the 1st

American to orbit the Earth. 3 years later Saturn V

launched Apollo—a capsule that launched 3 men into

orbit. July 16, 1969, Saturn V launched Neil Armstrong,

Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins were in Apollo. These

men landed on the moon. Armstrong’s famous quote:

“That’s one small step for man, one great leap for

mankind.”

(d)Bay of Pigs Fiasco: The first Cold war crisis for

Kennedy occurred in Cuba—90 miles off the coast of

Florida. Fidel Castro, a communist, had overthrown the

Cuban government. Castro immediately established ties

with the Soviet Union and this outraged Americans.

Under President Eisenhower, the CIA (Central

Intelligence Agency) had trained Cuban exiles to invade

the island. This was intended to ignite an uprising

against Castro. JFK approved of the plan and made

some changes. On April 17, 1961, 1400 armed Cuban

exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of

Cuba. The invasion was a disaster! The exiles boats hit

coral reefs, JFK cancelled air support and most of the

exiles were captured by Castro forces. The invasion

exposed an American plot to overthrow a neighbor’s

government.

(e)Construction of the Berlin Wall: June 1961

Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, wanted to stop the flood of Germans pouring out of Communist East Germany. He demanded that USA recognize Communist east Germany and Great Britain, France and the USA pull out of West Germany. JFK refused!

(f)Cuban Missile Crisis 1962—American intelligence

learned that Soviet technicians and equipment arrived

at Cuba. October 22, JFK announced on TV that USA

spy planes had taken photos of Soviet long range

missiles in Cuba. JFK ordered a naval blockade to stop

the USSR from delivering missiles to Cuba. JFK

ordered that USSR dismantle missiles already in Cuba.

Americans were on the brink of war. USSR offered the

USA a deal—they would remove missiles in Cuba if the

USA would remove missiles in Turkey (Russia’s

neighbor). The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the USA to

brink of a nuclear war. 2 things occurred: (1) a Nuclear

Test Ban treaty was agreed to by USSR and USA, and

(2) a HOTLINE was created so that Kennedy and

Khrushchev could talk at any time.

Civil Rights during Kennedy’s years

Many black voters had supported JFK—so civil rights

was a domestic legislative focus. African Americans began to push for desegregation in the south—it was maoving slow. 1960 Greensboro Sit-in—spurred a series of other sit ins. The sit-in movements sought equal treatment in transportation, housing, education, employment, and voter registration. Martin Luther King Jr. took the stage and became the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. Major legislation occurred after Kennedy was assassinated. Both Kennedy and Eisenhower laid the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement.

Death of President—November 22, 1963—John F.

Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, a

Communist sympathizer. JFK was riding in a car with his wife in Dallas, Texas when this occurred. Lyndon Baines Johnson, VP, was sworn in as the President of the United States of America. Oswald had lived in the USSR for a period. As Oswald was being escorted from a jail, Jack Ruby, assassinated Lee Harvey Oswald to protect others who were involved in the crime. In 1964 the Warren Commission (a group created to investigate the Kennedy assassination) ruled that Oswald acted alone.

THE PRESIDENCY OF LYNDON BAINES JOHNSON

6. Lyndon Baines Johnson assumed the role of President on November

22, 1963. He was sworn in on Air Force One in Dallas, Texas, on the

day of Kennedy’s assassination. Johnson decided to continue

Kennedy’s plan and push for Civil Rights, fighting poverty and

maintaining a strong stand against the spread of communism.

In 1964 Johnson (democrat) ran against Barry Goldwater

(republican) who was an outspoken conservative. Johnson won

the election by a landslide.

7. Johnson’s Domestic Affairs & International relations

The Great Society: During his campaign he promised to

Fight to end poverty. The Great Society was Johnson’s vision for a more perfect and equitable nation. The economy was strong and there was no reason why poverty could not de decreased. Many African-Americans had brought grievances that had to be addressed. Great Society’s goals addressed 4 areas: health and welfare,

(2) education, (3) “War on Poverty”, and (4) Consumer and Environmental Protection.

HEALTH AND WELFARE REFORMS UNDER GREAT SOCIETY:

(1) Medicare-insurance for the elderly;

(2) Medicaid—insurance for the poor; and

(3) Child Nutrition Act—started school breakfast

programs;

EDUACTION PROGRAMS UNDER GREAT SOCIETY:

(4) Head Start—early educational intervention for

disadvantaged children;

(5) Education Act 1965—created billions of dollars for

elementary and secondary schools to be built in

America—the Elementary and Secondary Education

Act also provided funding for adult literacy and

education;

(6) Higher Education Act- support college work study

programs, loans, scholarships, grants, etc for middle

income students;

WAR ON POVERTY GREAT SOCIETY REFORMS

(7)Office of Economic Opportunity-sought to improve life

in inner cities, such as: Job Corps, education training

for at risk children, etc.

(8)Housing and Urban Development (HUD)-established

new housing subsidy programs and made federal loans

and grants for housing easier to obtain.

(9)Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development

Act-helped revitalize urban areas through a variety of social and economic programs.

CONSUMER AND ENVIROMENTAL PROTECTION

(10) Water Quality and Clean Air Act- supported standards

for the quality of air and water.

(11) Highway Safety Act-created training standards for

emergency technicians and supported a team effort

between federal, state and local highway officials.

(12) Fair Packaging and Labeling Act- required all

consumer products to have informative labels that

listed ingredients.

(B) CIVIL RIGHTS UNDER THE JOHNSON PRESIDENCY

Civil Rights had been a domestic agenda briefly addressed by

Harry Truman. President Dwight Eisenhower saw the true

start of the Civil Rights Movement and during his presidency

advances were made. John F. Kennedy expanded Civil Rights

and upon his death Johnson decided to carry out his ideas and

see that Civil Rights was achieved.

(1)March on Washington 1963—Martin Luther King, Jr. led a group of over 200,000 people of all races to Washington DC. He gave his “I Have a Dream Speech.” As a result, the Civil Rights Act of 1964- this bill gave the federal

government the authority to enforce school desegregation

orders and to prohibit racial discrimination in all kinds of

public accommodations and employment.

(2)24th Amendment to the United States Constitution was

passed. The 24th Amendment abolished the poll tax in

federal elections. Its passage brought about Freedom

Summer-1964 blacks joined hands with many white civil rights workers from the north who came to MS to register blacks to vote.

(3)Voting Rights Act of 1965- In Selma, Alabama African

Americans made up 50% of the population and only 1%

were voters. This authorized the Attorney General of the

United States to send federal examiners to register

qualified voters, bypassing local officials who refused to

(4)Watts Riot, Los Angeles

5 days after Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, a riot broke out in an African-American neighborhood called the Watts neighborhood in Los Angeles. It lasted 6 days and took 14,000 National Guardsmen and 1500 law officers to restore order. $45 million dollars worth of property was destroyed in this riot. 34 people were killed and 900 injured. Nearly 400o fire destroyed 1300 buildings. The loss was estimated to be $250 million. President Johnson appointed the Kerner Commission to study the problem. They made recommendations to prevent future riots. The commission blamed white racism and white society for most of the problems in the inner city.

(5)Black Power Movement erupted under Johnson’s

administration. Many young blacks thought this meant

literal black power for self defense reasons during the

movement. This was a clear rejection of Martin Luther

King Jr.’s ideas. The leader of SNCC (Student Non-

Violent Coordinating Committee) was Stokley Carmichael.

He promoted the idea that black power actually meant that

Africans should control their social, economic and political

direction of the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm X and

the Nation of Islam-Malcolm X became a symbol for the

Black Power Movement. He preached black nationalism.

He sought for blacks to segregate themselves from whites.

Irony is Malcolm X loved white women!

(6)Black Panthers were a group Malcolm X followers. They

developed a 10 point program as their goals. Three

examples of these goals are: (a) black empowerment,

(b) end to racial oppression, (c) control of major institution

and services within the African American community,

such as hospitals, schools, etc.

(7)In Memphis, Tennessee, April 4, 1968, Martin Luther

King Jr. is assassinated by a sniper. Later that rear,

Robert Kennedy (JFK’s brother) sought the democratic

nomination to run for president and he was also

assassinated.

PRESIDENT EISENHOWER, KENNEDY, JOHNSON AND

NIXON DURING THE VIETNAM WAR

Dwight Eisenhower’s Presidency

In 1945 the United States became involved in Vietnam. Vietnam had been an unnoticed French colony until Japan seized it. After World War II, France wanted to take Vietnam back—reclaim it! Under Ho Chi Minh, the communist leader of Vietnam, a nationalist movement started.

Ho Chi Ming immediately asked the United States for help and the United States refused. Ho Chi Minh then formed the Vietminh. Ho Chi Minh was aided by the Soviet Union and China in their fight against the French. At Dien Bien Phu, a North Vietnamese town, the French were surrounded and destroyed. The French asked United States President, Dwight Eisenhower, for help. Eisenhower believed in the domino theory, once one country fell to communism, they would all fall. Eisenhower wanted Vietnam free but did not want to intervene. On May 7, 1954, the French started negotiations with Ho Chi Minh at the Geneva Accords. This was a meeting that was held in Switzerland to discuss the situation in Vietnam. Vietnam was divided upon the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh was given the territory above the 17th parallel and it became communist. The territory below the 17th parallel was anti-communist and wanted democratic elections. Ngo Dinh Diem led the south.

Ngo Dinh Diem was a Catholic, which was a minority in South Vietnam. Diem had agreed to allow elections to take place in his country and later stopped that from occurring. He stopped the proposed democratic elections

in 1956 because he feared that North and South Vietnam would be reunited. This decision started his downfall. Many of the South Vietnamese were Buddhist and they feared that Ngo Dinh Diem would also eventually decide to inflict his Catholic beliefs upon them. Diem created a religious crisis in the south. He developed harsh policies on anyone who was Buddhist. Several Buddhist monks actually set themselves on fire and this was aired on national TV. They began to doubt his dedication to freedom since he stopped the elections. It is also important to know that Ho Chi Minh never accepted the 17th parallel as the division between the two countries. In Ho Chi Minh’s mind, there was no division in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh launched a civil war in the south. H formed the Viet Cong, which were communist guerillas in the south. The Viet Cong’s role was to infiltrate the south, appear to support Diem and eventually overthrow him. At this point the United States decided to increase their involvement in Vietnam. President Eisenhower immediately sent 650 military advisors to train the South Vietnamese to defend themselves.

John F. Kennedy’s Presidency

Diem had created a religious crisis/war in the south. His harsh policies against the Buddhist, as well as, their televised suicides, had drawn national attention to South Vietnam. John F. Kennedy had become the United States President and he realized that the war could not be won without the removal of Diem. In November of 1963, a coup e tat was staged to overthrow the South Vietnamese government. Diem was executed, as well as his brother. John F. Kennedy was shocked by the executions. Kennedy knew that Diem needed to be removed from the government, but he did not want him executed. John F. Kennedy realized that South Vietnam needed a stable government, but he was killed himself before he could ensure this. John F. Kennedy’s VP, Lyndon Johnson became President.