Transformation of Europe: 1450 – 1750: Era of Revolutions
I. Renaissance
A. Italian Renaissance
§ Renaissance, or rebirth of art and learning, 1350-1600
§ Aristocrats, popes, nobles became wealthy patrons and vied to outdo one another
§ City-states sponsored innovations in art and architecture
§ Macaccio, Leonard) used linear perspective to show depth
§ Sculptors (Donatello and Michelangelo) created natural poses
B. Renaissance architecture
§ Simple, elegant style, inherited from classical Greek and Roman
§ Magnificent domed cathedrals
§ Brunelleschi's cathedral of Florence
§ St. Peter’s in Rome
C. Humanists or Man is the Measure of All Things
§ Drew inspiration from classical models especially Greece, Rome
§ Leading scholars included Dante, Petrarch
§ Scholars interested in humane letters
§ Literature, history, and moral philosophy
§ Called humanists
§ Recovered and translated many classical works
§ Attention to political and social issues and graces, too
§ Boccaccio’s Decameron
§ Castiglione’s The Courtier
§ Machiavelli’s The Prince
D. Northern Renaissance
§ Especially strong in France, England, Netherlands
§ Focus was more on science, math, and Christianity (language favored was Hebrew)
§ Strongly supported by the middle classes and minor nobles
§ Leading figures include Shakespeare, Durer, Erasmus, Protestant reformers
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II. Protestant Reformation
A. Precursors to Luther
§ Great Schism
§ 2 to 3 popes at same time undermined authority of the church
§ Church councils rule/attempt to overrule popes
§ Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England
§ Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices
§ Both condemned by Church
§ Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England
§ Wycliffe had Bible translated into English
B. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
§ Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517
§ Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform
§ Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read
§ Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities
§ By mid-16th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism
C. Reform spread outside Germany
§ Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands
§ Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival
§ English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce
D. John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism
§ Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530s
§ Calvinist missionaries were successful in France
§ Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland
§ John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland
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III. Catholic Church
A. Early Attempts to Reform
§ Catholic cardinals, bishops call council in early 15th century
§ Council of Constance deposes rival popes
§ Attempts to assert authority over pope, initial reforms
§ Catholic intellectuals attack Church corruption
§ Emperor Sigismund attempts to reform church in Germany
B. Church reaction to Luther, Protestants
§ Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther
§ King Henry VIII condemns Luther
§ Inquisition unleashed against Protestants
§ Spanish use wealth to fund anti-Protestants
C. The Council of Trent, 1545-1563
§ Directed reform of Roman Catholic Church
§ Attacked corruption
§ Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal
D. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
§ Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola
§ High standards in education
§ Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work
§ Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants
§ Became confessors, advisories to kings
§ Worldwide missionaries
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IV. Religious Conflicts
A. Between Protestants, Catholics during 16TH century
§ Wars as much social, political as religious
§ Neither side is innocent of conflict
B. Civil war in France
§ Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League
§ Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles
§ Lasted thirty-six years (1562-1598)
§ Ended with new dynasty
C. Spanish Armada
§ War between Catholic Spain, Protestant England, 1588
§ Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands
§ Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant Elizabeth
D. Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain
§ Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain
§ Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north (Holland)
E. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
§ The most destructive European war up to WWI
§ Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe
§ Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population
§ Saw rise of Sweden as Great Power and eclipse of Spain, Hapsburgs as European great power
§ Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire
§ Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire
F. Scottish Presbyterians revolt
§ Expel Catholic Queen with England’s secret assistance
§ Raise her kidnapped son as Presbyterian
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Europe’s Religious Map
V. State-Building
§ Italian city-states
§ Flourished with industries and trade
§ Each with independent administration and army
§ Levied direct taxes on citizens
§ More powerful absorbed smallest
§ France and England
§ Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
§ Fought for control of French lands
§ Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war
§ Central government over feudal nobility
§ English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty
§ Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy
§ Spain united
§ By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile
§ Sales tax supported a powerful standing army
§ Conquered Granada from Muslims
§ Seized southern Italy in 1494
§ Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China
§ Competition among European states
§ Frequent small-scale wars
§ Encouraged new military and naval technology
§ Technological innovations strengthened armies
§ Dynastic Politics
§ Constant search for an heir
§ Must marry for political advantage
§ Gave women influence as regents, brides, mother of heir
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VI. New Monarchies
A. New Monarchs
§ Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century
§ Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society
§ Developing towards divine right monarchs answerable only to God, not people
§ Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France are two best examples
B. France, England and Spain
§ All three united after long wars
§ Kings have new, broad powers
§ Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes
C. Enhanced royal, centralized powers
§ Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees
§ State power enlarged and more centralized
§ Standing armies in France and Spain
§ Professional bureaucrats loyal only to monarch, not church
§ Nobility status often sold to wealthy merchants to raise funds
§ Reformation increased royal power
§ Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church
§ Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state
§ Even Catholic monarchs tended to follow this trend
D. New law courts enhance royal power
§ Kings tend to function above the law
§ English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials
§ The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478
§ Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews
§ Used by Spanish monarchy to detect Protestant heresy and political dissidents
§ French Parliaments reduced to law courts not legislative assemblies
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VII. Attempted Revival of Empires
A. Charles V
§ Reigned 1519-1556
§ Holy Roman Emperor
§ Austria
§ Czech lands, Silesia
§ Hungary, Slovakia,
§ Slovenia, Croatia
§ Netherlands
§ Eastern France
§ Milan, Northern Italy
§ King of Spain
§ Castile
§ Navarre
§ Catalonia
§ Two Sicilies
§ Spanish American Empire, Philippines
§ Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage
§ Unable to establish a unified state
B. Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire
§ German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move
§ Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor
§ Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence
§ France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies
§ Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire
§ France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles
§ Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength
VIII. Constitutional and Absolute Monarchies
A. Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands
§ Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy
§ Characterized by
§ Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention
§ No one is above the law, property is protected by law
§ Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto
§ Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity
§ Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference
§ Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars
§ England’s road to rights
§ Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war
§ English Glorious Revolution 1688
§ English Bill of Rights 1689
B. Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia
§ Based on the theory of the divine right of kings
§ Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies
§ Great trappings of power especially palaces, images
§ Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church
§ Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth
§ Spain, Austria united by Hapsburg marriage, inheritance
§ Cardinal Richelieu
§ French chief minister 1624-1642
§ Crushed power of nobles
§ Supported Protestants, Sweden against Hapsburgs, Spain, Austria
§ Prussia began to rise in late 17th century
§ Based on absolutism and army
§ Eventually will unite Germany
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IX. Louis XIV of France
A. King of France
§ Called the Sun King
§ Planets revolve around the sun
§ Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system
§ Reigned 1643-1715
B. Bureaucracy
§ Used middle class for professional bureaucrats
§ Established intendants tp carry out wishes
C. Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles
§ Nobles reduced to serving king, state
§ Became generals, diplomats, ministers
§ Lived at Versailles where king spied on them
D. Large professional standing army
§ Well trained, well paid, well equipped
§ Kept, enforced order
E. Mercantilism and Colonies
§ Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth
§ Promoted economic development: roads, canals
§ Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries
§ Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India
F. Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model
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X. European State System
A. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
§ Ended the Thirty Years' War
§ Began system of independent sovereign states
§ Abandoned notion of religion unity
§ Did not end war between European states
B. The balance of power
§ No state allowed to dominate others
§ Diplomacy based on shifting alliances
§ No permanent alliances
§ Only permanent interests
§ Religion unimportant to determining alliances
§ Destroy no nation
§ Make no permanent enemies
C. Military development costly and competitive
§ New armaments (cannons and small arms)
§ New military tactics
§ Extremely intricate fortifications
§ Professional navies with modern warships, weapons
§ China, India, and the Islamic states did not keep apace
§ Small, well-trained armies become critical
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XI. The Nation State
A. Nation-State
§ Ethnic group with common language, culture
§ Shared history, traditions
§ Shared institutions (faith, politics)
§ Occupying a common territory
§ Ruled by a common government
§ Government’s job
§ Insure domestic tranquility and happiness
§ Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles
§ Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state
B. Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology
§ Love of your nation above others is nationalism
§ Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite
§ Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope
§ Martin Luther addresses the “German People”
§ King James, Wycliffe translate Bible into English
§ French have Joan of Arc fighting for France against English
§ Scotsmen, English resent Catholic “Romish” influence
§ Dutch, Portuguese, Catalans revolt against foreign Spanish rule
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XII. War and Peace in Europe
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XIII. Population Growth
A. Population growth
§ American foods improved European nutrition, diets
§ Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650s
§ Life spans increased
§ Infant deaths decrease
§ Population growth
§ American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets
§ Increased resistance to epidemic diseases after the mid-seventeenth century
§ European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800
§ Urbanization
§ Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650
§ Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers
§ Most dramatic in Ireland, England, Poland, France, Netherlands
B. Urbanization
§ Rapid growth of major cities
§ For example, Paris from 130,000 (1550) to 500,000 (1650)
§ London, Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Lyons
§ Cities increasingly important: administrative, commercial, intellectual centers
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XIV. Early Capitalism
A. Profits and ethics
§ Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful
§ Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society
§ Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor
B. Early capitalism
§ Led to increased influence for urban middle classes
§ Altered rural society
§ Improved material standards
§ Increased independence of rural workers
§ Capitalism generated deep social strains
§ Bandits, muggers, witch-hunting
§ Began to impoverish urban workers
§ Pricing Revolutions were common
§ Impoverished aristocrats, peasants
§ Too much money chasing too few goods
C. The Price Revolution
§ Use of money replaced barter
§ Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances
§ Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver
§ Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing
§ Both countries had to import goods
§ Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver
D. Too much money chasing too few goods
§ Inflation resulted
§ Peasants, aristocrats
§ On fixed incomes
§ Payment in kind economies suffered
§ Inflation drove real wages down
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XV. Commercial Revolution
A. The nature of capitalism