What are the major types of organic molecules?
(All key terms are in bold writing)
I. many biological molecules are ______
A. polymers are ______or branching chains based on repeating subunits (monomers)
1. example: ______(the polymer) are made from ______(the monomers)
2. example: nucleic acids (the ______) are made from nucleotides (the ______)
Polymer / MonomerB. very large polymers (hundreds of subunits or more) are called ______
C. polymers are ______into monomers by hydrolysis (“break with ______”)
1. typically requires an ______to occur at a decent rate
2. hydrogen from water is attached to one monomer, and a ______from water is attached to the other
D. monomers are covalently linked to form polymers by ______
1. also typically requires an enzyme to occur at a decent rate
2. typically the equivalent of a ______molecule is removed (dehydration synthesis)
II. The four major classes of biologically important organic molecules are:
A.
B.
C. (and related compounds)
D. (and related compounds)
Read pp.30-31; answer p.31 #1-2
Carbohydrates
III. carbohydrates include ______, ______, and ______
A. carbohydrates contain only the elements ______, ______, and ______
B. the ratio works out so that ______are typically (CH2O)n
C. carbohydrates are the main ______in biological systems created for ______and consumed for ______; some are also used as ______materials
IV. grouped into ______, ______, and ______
1. monosaccharides are ______sugars (a single monomer)
· have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 carbons
· referred to as trioses, tetroses, ______, hexoses, and ______
· examples of pentoses include ______and deoxyribose (part of ______)
· examples of hexoses include glucose, fructose, and galactose; glucose is most abundant
· Examine the three different ways of representing glucose. All describe the same formule of C6H12O6
2. ______consist of two ______units
· the two monomers are joined by a glycosidic linkage or ______
· formed when the equivalent of a ______molecule is removed from the two ______
· an oxygen atom is bound to a carbon from each ______
· typically, the linkage is between carbon ____ of one and _____ of the other
· ______, ______, and ______are common disaccharides
§ maltose (malt sugar): has ______glucose subunits
§ sucrose (table sugar): ______+ fructose
§ lactose (milk sugar): glucose + ______
3. polysaccharides are ______made of repeating ______units linked together by ______bonds
· number of subunits varies, typically ______
· can be branched or ______
· some are easily broken down and are good for ______(examples: starch, glycogen)
· some are harder to break down and are good as ______(example: cellulose)
· starch is the main storage ______of ______
§ polymer made from α-glucose units linked primarily between carbons 1 and 4
§ plants store starches in organelles called ______, a type of plastid
· ______ is the main storage carbohydrate of ______
§ similar to starch, but very highly branched and more ______-______
§ is ______stored in an organelle; mostly found in ______and ______
· cellulose is the major structural component of most plant ______
§ polymer made from b-glucose units linked primarily between carbons 1 and 4 (similar to starch, but note that the b1-4 linkage makes a huge difference)
§ unlike starch, most organisms cannot ______cellulose (we lack the ability to break the link between the units of glucose)
§ cellulose is a major constituent of ______, wood, and ______
§ cellulose contains ______of the carbon in found in plants
§ fibrous cellulose is the “fiber” in your ______
§ some fungi, bacteria, and protozoa make enzymes that can break down ______
§ animals that live on materials rich in cellulose, e.g. cattle, sheep and termites, contain ______in their gut that are able to break down cellulose for use by the animal
4. carbohydrates can be modified from the basic (CH2O)n formula
· many modified carbohydrates have important ______roles
· example: ______– structural component in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons
· example: ______in cartilage
· example: glycoproteins and glycolipids in ______
Read pp.32-33; answer p.33 #1-2
Lipids
IV. lipids are fats and ______-______substances
A. lipids are a ______group of compounds defined by ______, not structure
B. ______or ______compounds
C. lipids are principally ______, and are relatively ______in water (some do have polar and nonpolar regions
1. lipids consist mainly of ______and ______
2. some ______and/or ______, mainly in the polar regions of lipids that have such regions
D. roles of ______include serving as ______structural components, as ______molecules, and as ______molecules
E. major classes of lipids that you need to know are ______(fats), ______, and ______
F. triacylglycerols contain ______joined to three ______
1. ______is a three carbon ______with 3 ______groups
2. a fatty acid is a long, ______hydrocarbon chain ______group at one end
· ______fatty acids contain _____ carbon-carbon ______(usually solid at room temp)
· ______fatty acids contain ______or ______double bonds (usually liquid at room temp)
§ ______– one double bond
§ ______– more than one double bond
· about ______different fatty acids are commonly found in triacylglycerols; most have an even number of carbons
3. ______results in an ______between a fatty acid and the glycerol
· one attached fatty acid = ______
· two = ______
· three = ______
4. triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides) are the most abundant ______, and are important sources of ______
G. phospholipids consist of a ______molecule, a ______group esterified to the third ______group of glycerol, and an organic molecule (usually charged or polar) esterified to the phosphate
1. phospholipids are amphipathic; they have a ______end (the two fatty acids) and a ______end (the phosphate and organic molecule)
2. this is often drawn with a polar “head” and two nonpolar “tails”
3. the nonpolar (or ______) portion of the molecule tends to stay away from water, and the polar (or ______) portion of the molecule tends to interact with water
4. because of this character phospholipids are important constituents of biological ______
H. steroids have a backbone of four ______rings
1. ______extend from the rings; length and structure of the side chains varies
2. one type of steroid, ______, is an important component of cell membranes
3. other examples: many hormones such as ______, ______
p.35 #1+2
Proteins
V. proteins are ______that are ______formed from ______monomers
A. proteins have great ______and perform many ______
B. roles include ______catalysis, ______, transport, structure/support, motion, ______; protein ______determines protein ______
C. ______are polymers made of amino acid ______linked together by ______
1. amino acids consist of a central or alpha ______; bound to that carbon is a ______atom, an ______group (-NH2), a ______group (-COOH), and a variable ______group (R group)
· the R group determines the ______and much of the chemical properties of the amino acid
· there are ______amino acids that commonly occur in proteins; pay attention to what makes an R group polar, nonpolar, or ionic (charged) and thus their ______or ______nature
· ______and ______can usually make their ______amino acids
· many ______must obtain some amino acids from their diet (______amino acids)
· there are 9 essential amino acids that humans cannot produce and must therefore eat.
2. the peptide bond joins the ______group of one amino acid to the ______group of another; is formed by a ______reaction
3. two amino acids fastened together by a peptide bond is called a ______, several amino acids fastened together by peptide bonds are called a ______
D. the ______of amino acids determine the ______(and thus the properties) of a protein
E. proteins have 4 levels of organization or structure
1. primary structure (1°) of a protein is the sequence of ______in the ______chain
2. secondary structure (2°) of a protein results from ______bonds involving the backbone, where the peptide chain is held in structures, either a coiled α-helix or folded β-pleated sheet; proteins often have both types of secondary structure in different regions of the chain
3. tertiary structure (3°) of a protein is the overall ______shape of a ______polypeptide chain, determined by ______structure combined with ______between ______groups (NOTE: book defines this in a confusing way, use my way)
4. quaternary structure (4°) of a protein results from ______between ______or more ______polypeptide chains
· the interactions are of the same type that produce 2° and 3° structure in a single polypeptide chain
· when present, 4° structure is the final ______-______structure of the protein (the protein ______)
· example: hemoglobin has ______polypeptide chains
· not all proteins have _____ structure
5. ultimately the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of a protein derive from its ______structure, but molecular ______may aid the folding process
6. protein conformation determines ______
7. denaturation is ______of a protein, disrupting 2°, 3°, and 4° structure
· changes in ______, ______, or exposure to various ______can cause denaturation
· denatured proteins typically ______perform their normal biological function
· denaturation is generally ______
F. enzymes are ______substances that regulate the ______of the chemical ______in living organisms; most ______are ______(covered in some detail later in this course)
G. “related compounds” –amino acids; modified amino acids; polypeptides too short to be considered true proteins; and modified short polypeptides
p.39 #1-3
Nucleic Acids
VI. nucleic acids transmit ______information by determining what ______a cell makes
A. two classes of nucleic acids found in cells: ______acid (DNA) and ______acid (RNA)
1. DNA carries the ______cells use to make ______
2. RNA functions in ______according to mechanisms we will learn about in gr.12.
B. nucleic acids are ______made of ______monomers
1. a nucleotide consists of
· a five-carbon ______(ribose or deoxyribose)
· one or more ______ groups, and
· a ______ base, an organic ring compound that contains nitrogen
2. purines are ______-ringed nitrogenous bases
3. pyrimidines are ______-ringed nitrogenous base
C. DNA typically contains the purines ______(A) and ______(G), and the pyrimidines ______(C) and ______(T)
D. RNA typically contains the purines ______(A) and ______(G), and the pyrimidines ______(C) and ______(U)
E. nucleotides are fastened together by ______ bonds
1. the ______group of one nucleotide is fastened to the ______of the adjacent nucleotide
2. the joining is yet another ______reaction
3. the way that they are joined creates a ______strand
F. the sequence of the 4 ______fastened to the ______-phosphate backbone is genetic information
G. DNA is typically a ______stranded molecule
1. the two ______twist into a double ______
2. ______bonds between the ______bases of opposite strands hold the strands together
3. DNA can easily replicate because of ______base pairing. This means that the sequence of one strand of DNA ______the sequence for the ______strand of DNA.
· A matches with ______
· G matches with ______
H. RNA is typically a ______stranded nucleic acid molecule, having only a single ______chain
I. “related compounds” – nucleotides, modified nucleotides, dinucleotides
J. some single and double nucleotides with important biological functions:
1. ______tri______(ATP) is an important ______carrying compound in ______
2. cyclic adenosine ______phosphate (cAMP) is a ______intermediary compound
3. ______adenine ______(NAD+) is an ______carrier which is oxidized or reduced (loses or gains electrons) in many ______reactions
Review of Biological Molecules
1. Discuss hydrolysis and condensation/dehydration, and the connection between them.
2. Carbohydrates: what are they, and what are they used for? What terms are associated with them (including the monomers and the polymer bond name)? Give some examples of molecules in this group.
3. Lipids: what are they, and what are they used for? What terms are associated with them (including majors classes and bond names)? Give some examples of molecules in this group.
4. Polypeptides/Proteins: what are they, and what are they used for? What terms are associated with them (including the monomers and the polymer bond name)? Give some examples of molecules in this group.
5. Discuss the four levels of protein structure.
6. Nucleic acids: what are they, and what are they used for? What terms are associated with them (including the monomers and the polymer bond name)? Give some examples of molecules in this group.
7. What are 5’ and 3’ ends? What does “antiparallel” mean in DNA?
8. What are ATP, cAMP, and NAD+?
KEY
What are the major types of organic molecules?
1. many biological molecules are polymers
A. polymers are long chains or branching chains based on repeating subunits (monomers)
· example: proteins (the polymer) are made from amino acids (the monomers)
· example: nucleic acids (the polymer) are made from nucleotides (the monomers)
B. very large polymers (hundreds of subunits or more) are called macromolecules
C. polymers are degraded into monomers by hydrolysis (“break with water”)
· typically requires an enzyme to occur at a decent rate
· hydrogen from water is attached to one monomer, and a hydroxyl from water is attached to the other
D. monomers are covalently linked to form polymers by condensation/dehydration
· also typically requires an enzyme to occur at a decent rate
· typically the equivalent of a water molecule is removed (dehydration synthesis)
2. The four major classes of biologically important organic molecules are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins or polypeptides (and related compounds), and nucleic acids (and related compounds)
3. carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose
A. carbohydrates contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
B. the ratio works out so that carbohydrates are typically (CH2O)n
C. carbohydrates are the main molecules in biological systems created for energy storage and consumed for energy production; some are also used as building materials
D. grouped into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
· monosaccharides are simple sugars (a single monomer)
· have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 carbons
· referred to as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses
· examples of pentoses include ribose and deoxyribose (part of nucleic acids)
· examples of hexoses include glucose, fructose, and galactose; glucose is most abundant