abilityThe capacity to perform physical and intellectual tasks.
accountabilityHolding a person with authority answerable for setting appropriate goals, using resources efficiently, and accomplishing task responsibilities.
action researchData collection, analysis, and problem diagnosis, the results of which are provided to the client system to help decide on plans for improvement.
actionsDeliberate choices about where to direct behaviours combined with intense, persistent efforts to achieve a goal over some time period.
affinity diagramAn output from a quasi-structured group process created by arranging individual responses to a focusing question into groupings in which individual statements appear to have an affinity relationship to each other.
amoral managerOne who lacks any moral sensibility whatsoever; one who does not think about the moral implications of actions, or who chooses to keep ethics out of decisions
anticipatory controlBandura suggests that people are capable of choosing how they will respond in various situations.
aptitudeThe capacity to learn an ability.
association powerArises when one person has influence with another who possesses power.
attitudeReadiness to respond in a certain way to a person, object, idea or situation.
attitudesTemporal beliefs based on evaluative interpretations of current conditions.
attributionAn assumed explanation of why people behave as they do, based on our observations and inferences.
attributional errorThe tendency to overestimate internal factors and underestimate external factors when making attributions about others.
authoritarianismThe degree to which a person believes that status and power differences are appropriate in an organisation.
authorityThe right to make decisions and commit organisational resources based on position within the organisation.
autonomyGrants power and responsibility to followers to initiate innovative actions that improve processes and performance, and then assesses results against general goals.
BaldrigeThe Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award framework for evaluating the qualities and processes of organisations dedicated to quality performance as measured by seven dimensions of organisational life ranging from leadership practices to performance resu
behavioural controlRefers to supervision and is responsive to the needs of the task and ability of the manager.
behavioural styleA person’s habitual way of interacting with other people.
benchmarkingComparing a unit’s performance to outcomes achieved in other outstanding organisations.
boundary-spanning transactionsThose actions that link an organisation to specific external sectors; exchanges that make the system dynamic and open.
brainstormingA small group approach for achieving high participation and increasing the number of action alternatives.
bureaucracyA classic pyramid-shaped structure created as a rational-legal system of authority emphasising formal roles and rules with the intent of being efficiency-orientated.
bureaucracyMax Weber’s rational-legal authority structure for organising specialised functions and standardising procedures to achieve efficiency.
burnoutExhaustion that develops from experiencing too much pressure and too few sources of satisfaction.
careerThe individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviours associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the person’s life.
centralisationAn organisational structure that concentrates authority and decision-making towards the top.
certaintyExists if the exact results of implementing a particular solution are known in advance.
change agentsIndividuals or groups responsible for changing behaviour and systems.
changeThe process of moving from one condition to another.
channelThe medium through which a message is transmitted.
charismaA quality of admiration when others identify with and are attracted to a leader they look up to.
charismatic-based valuesValues originating from a strong leader, usually the founder, which tend to be internalised by members as long as they look to the leader for guidance and inspiration.
chronic stressThe stress caused by continual confrontation of stressors without relief.
classical conditioningAn experimental approach that associates a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to achieve a conditional response.
closed systemsSystems that operate without environmental or outside disturbances.
clustersGeographic concentrations of interconnected organisations in a particular field.
coercive powerBased on the ability to withhold desired resources or make life unpleasant for those who do not comply with the power holder’s requests.
cognitive dissonanceA state of inconsistency between an individual’s attitudes and behaviour.
cognitive learningSelective interpretation of perceptual data organised into new patterns of thoughts and relationships.
cognitive styleThe way an individual perceives and processes information.
cohesiveThe degree of attractiveness of a group to its members and the closeness of the interpersonal bonds between group members.
communicationThe process of one person sending a message to another with the intent of evoking a response.
compensatory justiceThe fairness of compensation awarded to those who have been injured.
competitive advantageOccurs whenever a business is able to sustain an edge over its rivals by attracting customers and defending itself against competitive forces.
competitive strategyActions at the level of a specific line of business intended to create a competitive advantage by planned actions about where to compete and how to compete.
conflict management stylesThe different combinations of assertiveness and cooperation that people emphasise when in a conflict situation.
conflictA disagreement between two or more parties who perceive that they have incompatible concerns.
conflict-positive organisationAn organisation in which participants perceive conflict as an opportunity for personal and organisational growth.
consensusAn attribution process used to determine how others behave in similar situations.
consistencyAn attribution process used to explain the degree of variance in behaviour over time.
content theories of motivationTheories based on identifying specific human needs and describing the circumstances under which these needs activate behaviour.
contingency theoriesTheories that identify the circumstances in which a particular practice is more likely to obtain desired results.
contingency theoryThe perspective that a leader’s effectiveness is dependent on how he or she interacts with various situational factors – there is no one best universal approach.
continuous improvementOngoing assessment and problem-solving aimed at improving designs, processes and outcomes.
control systemEvaluative and feedback processes to let people know their managers are paying attention to what they do and can tell when undesired deviations occur.
controlAny process to help align actions of people and systems with the goals and interests of the organisation.
controlBounds the authority given managers to shape decisions and resource allocations by specifying parameters and providing for higher-level reviews and often approvals.
controllingThe process of evaluating the degree to which outcomes match objectives; and when they do not, analysing why and taking corrective action.
core capabilitiesThe critical skills and processes that an organisation executes so well in carrying out its intended strategy that its reputation builds around them.
core ideologyCombines essential and enduring core values as a set of guiding principles with a purpose that uniquely defines the fundamental reasons for the organisation’s existence (beyond making money).
core job dimensionsThe underlying characteristics of a job (such as autonomy and task variety) and how they relate to job involvement, motivation, performance and satisfaction.
corporate strategyFor multibusiness firms, the highest-level decisions and actions about what lines of business to be in and how to manage them.
counterculturesSubcultures that reject the values and assumptions of the host organisation and develop opposing beliefs, frequently based on elitist notions of a charismatic leader.
credibilityOne of the most characteristic traits of leaders, which refers to being honest, competent, forward-looking, and inspiring.
credibilityThe sender’s degree of trustworthiness, as perceived by the receiver.
criteriaStatements of objectives that need to be met for a problem to be solved.
cross-functional teamA team composed of persons from several different functional units who work together to accomplish a task.
cross-functional teamsA way of organising that pulls people together from several different functions or disciplines to emphasise coordination of separate but interrelated tasks in achieving product and service quality.
cultureThe pattern of learned behaviours shared and transmitted among the members of a society.
daddy trackA career path for fathers with less advancement pressure and fewer rewards so that fathers can spend more time with their families.
decentralisationAn organisational structure that disperses authority and decision-making to operating units throughout the organisation.
decision stylesLearned habits for processing decision-making information.
decision-makingSelecting the best solution from among feasible alternatives.
decodingThe receiver function of perceiving communication stimuli and interpreting their meaning.
defenceA cognitive distortion that protects the self-concept against being diminished.
deficiency reduction needsRather universally experienced needs that trigger avoidance behaviours where the aim is to find relief from deficiencies, deprivations or unpleasant tensions.
degenerative interaction climateAn organisational climate that encourages dysfunctional conflict.
degenerative interaction patternsCompetitive and destructive relationships resulting in lack of openness, low trust, blaming and defensiveness.
Delphi techniqueA structured group problem-solving process where participants do not meet together but interact through a series of written judgements and suggestions.
dependent variableThe outcome studied through research and believed to be caused or influenced by an independent variable.
differentiationThe psychological identification and attachment to a subpart of an organisation, to a particular department, discipline or function.
discriminationThe process by which universal or previously unstructured elements are placed into more specific structures.
disruptive innovationsRevolutionary industry changes usually introduced by smaller, more entrepreneurial organisations to provide customers with new ways of doing things.
distinctivenessAn attribution process used to explain whether a person’s behaviour fits with other behaviours.
distressStress that has a negative consequence on a person’s well-being.
distributive justiceThe fair distribution of benefits and burdens across a group or society.
distributive justiceThe perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
distrubutive bargainingThe negotiating process whereby two parties negotiate over the price of an item.
diversificationIn complex organisations, a corporate strategy of branching out beyond the core business by offering different combinations of products and markets that establish new lines of business.
dogmatismThe degree of flexibility or rigidity of a person’s views.
double-loop learningShifts accountability for actions and learning to employees by having a manager ask complex questions about the employee’s motivation for solving a problem.
downsizingThe process of deliberately becoming smaller by reducing the size of the workforce or amalgamating or losing divisions
dual-factor theoryHerzberg’s motivation content theory based on two independent needs: hygiene and motivator factors.
dynamic systemAny system that changes over time as structures and functions adapt to external disturbances and conditions.
dysfunctional conflictConflict between groups in the same organisation that hinders the achievement of group and organisational goals.
effectivenessProducing the right output or doing things right to create value for stakeholders.
efficiencyDoing something right or getting the most output for the least input.
electronic businessAn information network called e-business or e-commerce that makes corporate boundaries transparent by enabling employees, vendors and customers to be simultaneously connected to the same data and information resulting in faster and cheaper transactions to
elitist valuesFocus on the perceived superiority of the organisation in comparison to others.
emotional intelligenceA person’s ability to be aware of personal emotions and those of others in order to interact with others in productive ways.
employee-orientated behaviourAn approach to leadership that aims at satisfying the social and emotional needs of group members.
empowermentDescribes conditions that enable people to feel competent and in control of their work and energised to take initiative and persist at meaningful tasks.
encodingTranslating information into a message appropriate for transmission.
environmental scanningThe monitoring of current and anticipated trends and events in the external environment through quantitative data and qualitative perceptions.
episodic stressA pattern of high stress followed by intervals of relief.
equity theoryThe idea that motivation is moderated by perceived fairness or discrepancies between contributions and rewards.
ERG theoryAlderfer’s simplified content theory that identifies existence, relatedness and growth as need categories, and acknowledges multiple needs may be operating at one time without being hierarchically determined.
ergonomicsA biomechanic approach to minimise physical strain and stress on a worker based on the healthy design of work methods and technology.
ethical behaviourBehaviour that conforms to accepted standards of conduct.
ethical dilemmaA situation or problem facing an individual that involves complex and often conflicting principles of ethical behaviour.
ethical reasoningThe process of sorting out the principles that help determine what is ethical when faced with an ethical dilemma.
ethicsThe discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligations.
exercises and simulationsActivities participants engage in to generate behaviour for feedback that can be analysed and used to develop improvement plans.
expectancy theoryA theory of motivation based on a person’s beliefs about effort-performance–outcome relationships.
expert powerOriginates when a person is perceived to have superior knowledge, experience or judgement that others need and do not possess themselves.
extrinsic rewardsRewards externally bestowed, as by a supervisor, teacher or organisation.
feedback analysisA written expectation that you expect will happen because of a key decision or action and the comparison of the actual results 9 or 12 months later.
feedbackA message that tells the original sender how clearly his or her message was understood and what effect it has had on the receiver.
figureThe dominant feature being perceived.
filteringThe sender conveys only certain parts of the relevant information to the receiver.
financingThe management function involving budget preparation and finding or determining sources of funding to meet requirements for capital investments and operating expenses.
flowchart (process flow diagram)A pictorial representation of all the steps of a process.
force-field analysisThe process analysing the forces that drive change and those that restrain it.
formal authorityLegitimate power derived directly from a person’s title and position in the organisational hierarchy.
formal groupA group intentionally established by a manager to accomplish specific organisational objectives.
frame of referenceA person’s mindset, based on past experience and current expectations, which determines what is perceived and how it is interpreted.
frame of referenceMental filter through which perceptions are interpreted and evaluated.
friendship groupAn informal group based on common characteristics that are not necessarily work-related.
functional conflictConflict between groups that stimulates innovations and production.
functional valuesExpress a normative mode of conduct that tells members what they should pay attention to (e.g. customer service, innovation, quality).
gainsharingA pay-for-performance system that shares financial rewards among all employees based on performance improvements for the entire business unit.
Gantt chartA graphic planning and control method that breaks down a project into separate tasks and estimates the time needed for their completion.
Garbage Can modelViews decision-making as a mix up of choice process, problems, solutions and participants.
generalisationThe means through which we transfer learning from one situation to another as well as categorise information.
gestaltA German word meaning ‘shape, configuration, or the arrangement of relationships in a total situation’.
glass ceilingAn invisible barrier that limits the advancement of women and minorities.
goalThe desired outcome of an action, which becomes motivational when a person wants it and strives to achieve it.
grapevineThe informal communication channel for gossip and rumours.
groundThe surrounding, competing stimuli being perceived.
group decision support systemsElectronic and computer-supported data processing tools that can facilitate group decision-making in certain situations.
groupTwo or more people who perceive themselves as a distinct entity, regularly interact and influence one another over a period of time, share common values, and strive for common objectives.
groupthinkA state in groups where the pressures for conformity are so great that they dominate members’ abilities to realistically appraise alternative decision options.
growth aspiration needsSomewhat unique personal needs influencing choices to seek out goals and experiences that will be meaningful and satisfying.
halo effectThe tendency to overrate a person based on a single trait.
Hard HRMViews people as a resource used as a means of achieving organisational goals
hardinessA personality characteristic of people who are more immune than most to the negative consequences of experiencing stress.
Hawthorne effectThe unintentional biasing of research outcomes due to the possibility that simply paying attention to the experimental subjects causes their behaviour to change.
hierarchy of needsA five-level needs theory proposed by Maslow in which lower-level basic needs must be satisfied before advancing to a higher-level need.
horizontal job loadingThe process of enlarging jobs by combining separate work activities into a whole job that provides for greater task variety.
hygiene factorsJob context factors such as working conditions and benefits that cause dissatisfaction if inadequate.
hypothesisA statement about the proposed relationship between independent and dependent variables.
ideologyBeliefs and values held by a manager about how to succeed in business; encompasses economic assumptions and ethical ideals.
immoral managerOne devoid of ethical principles and who is actively opposed to doing what is ethical.
independent variableThe variable thought to affect one or more dependent variables.
informal groupA group that emerges through the efforts of individuals to satisfy personal needs not met by the formal organisation.
information powerStems from the ability to control access to critical information and its distribution.
initiating structureLeader behaviour intended to establish well-defined patterns of organisation, channels of communication, and work procedures between leader and group.