New Exploring World History (Second Edition)

New Exploring World History (Second Edition)

Revision Notes

4Major Conflicts and the Quest for peace

4.1The Two World Wars and the Peace Settlements

IOutbreak of the First World War (WWI) and its results

ARelations among European powers before WWI

i.Major bilateral relations

1Franco-German relations

—The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 broke out between France and Prussia. After its defeat, France had to cede Alsace-Lorraine, which was rich in iron ore, and pay a large amount of indemnity to Prussia. Besides, Prussia proclaimed the unification of Germany at the Palace of Versailles. As a traditional power, France suffered grave humiliation and swore revenge on Germany.

2Germany’s diplomatic relations

—Germany carried out conscription to strengthen its naval and military strength. It actively scrambled for colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific regions. Its actions threatened the longstanding interests of Britain, France and Russia.

3Franco-Russian relations

—Threatened by Germany’s ambition, France and Russia signed the Franco-Russian Entente in 1894, under which France promised a large amount of loans to assist Russia in its industrialisation.

4Anglo-French relations

—The rise of Germany, however, promoted co-operation between Britain and France. They signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904, under which they recognised each other’s colonies in Asia and Africa and promised to avoid colonial rivalries.

5Relations between Germany and Austria-Hungary

—The major ethnic group in Germany and Austria-Hungary was the Germans. Both countries promoted ‘Pan-Germanism’ and foreign expansion to build a German empire. Germany expanded into Western and Eastern Europe, and Austria-Hungary into the Balkan Peninsula. They maintained a friendly relationship.

6Relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary

—People in Russia and the Balkan Peninsula were mainly Slavs. Russia considered itself to be the leader of Slavic countries and advocated ‘Pan-Slavism’, which aimed at placing all Eastern Europe and Balkan states under its control. Russia and Austria-Hungary were hostile to each other, for both of them had territorial ambitions in the Balkan Peninsula.

7Franco-Italian relations

—These two countries once had a poor relationship because Italy was discontented with French invasion of Tunisia in North Africa in 1881. Their relationship improved after the signing of the Franco-Italian Entente in 1902.

ii.Major multi-lateral relations

1Alliance system

—To seek national security in the face of the above hostile bilateral relations, European countries divided themselves into 2 opposing camps:

Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance in 1882;

The Triple Entente was formed by Britain, France and Russia in 1907.

—The alliance system fuelled the suspicions and hostilities between the 2 camps. A regional conflict might escalate into large-scale wars.

2Economic conflicts and colonial rivalry

—To protect their local industries and prevent competition from foreign goods, many of them introduced protectionism.

—Besides, as industrialisation led to a greater demand for markets and raw materials, they established overseas colonies.

Before the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907, Britain, France and Russia had colonial conflicts in Africa and Asia on occasion.

The First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 and the Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911 were caused by the rivalries between Germany and France over the colonial status of Morocco in North Africa.

3Extreme nationalism

—Nationalism originally referred to the belief and actions to enhance national glory and the sense of identity.

—Extreme nationalists promoted absolute loyalty to states and called for foreign expansion in order that their states might gain national glory. For example:

France desired to take revenge on Germany after the Franco- Prussian War.

Germany and Austria-Hungary promoted ‘Pan-Germanism’

Russia proposed ‘Pan-Slavism’

—Their refusal to make concessions in economic and diplomatic rivalries was mainly because they thought that making compromises would be viewed as a sign of weakness.Extreme nationalism encouraged the European powers to compete for national interests.

4Armaments race

—Germany was the first country to carry out conscription in the late 19th century. This practice was followed by other powers to facilitate nationwide mobilisation within a short period of time.

—As international relationship became tense, they began to increase their military expenditure, expanded their armies and navies, and improved the quality of their weapons.

—The competition between Britain and Germany in building dreadnoughts was particularly fierce after 1900.

—The armaments race only made the international situation tenser, creating a ‘war fever’ in some European countries, such as Germany, and increasing the possibility of war.

iii.Attempts at making peace

1Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907)

—The Hague Conferences urged Europe to establish the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The powers also agreed not to start a war without warning and promised to respect human lives, personal property and religious beliefs during wartime.

—However, as the European powers feared that disarmament would make them become the targets of invasion, the conferences failed to achieve its basic aim of disarmament.

2Attempts to resolve pre-war crises

2.1Crises in Western Europe

Algeciras Conference (1906)

—It attempted to settle the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905.Western powers held a conference in Algeciras in Spain. Among the participating countries, Germany found that its only supporter was Austria-Hungary. Germany subsequently felt isolated. Although Morocco did not become a French colony, it came under the French sphere of influence.

—Germanyrealised that it was the target of hostility from many European countries. As a result, Germany became even more determined to strengthen its military power after 1905.

Treaty of Fez (1911)

—France sent troops to Morocco when civil unrest broke out in 1911. Germany reacted by sending gunboats to express its discontent.The crisis was resolved as Germany made concessions.

—After the signing of the Treaty of Fez by Germany and France in the same year, Morocco officially became a French protectorate. However, Germany’s relations with Britain and France further deteriorated.

2.2Crises in Eastern Europe

—In 1908, the Bosnian Crisis broke out. Austria-Hungary took advantage of the civil unrest in the Ottoman Empire to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation hindered the development of the Greater-Serbia Movement.

—The relations between Austria-Hungary and Serbia and their respective camps were severely damaged.

Treaty of London (May 1913)

—In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro allied to declare war on the Ottoman Empire. The First Balkan War broke out. After the victory of the alliance, the powers held a conference in London, Britain.

—Serbia longed to seize Albania for a port. However, Austria-Hungary was afraid of a stronger Serbia and therefore proposed an independent Albania. The conference failed to ease the tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.

Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913)

—Bulgaria was dissatisfied with the territorial settlements of the Treaty of London. As a result, Bulgaria declared war on its former allies and the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat of Bulgaria, the powers held a conference in Bucharest, Romania.

—However, Serbia was unable to realise its ambition once again as Austria-Hungary insisted on the independence of Albania to prevent Serbia from gaining an outlet to the sea.The further territorial gains of Serbia strengthened its resolution for a revenge on Austria-Hungary. The treaty failed to ease the tension between the two countries.

iv.Sarajevo Assassination: outbreak of WWI

—On 28 June 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, visited Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia), with his wife. After inspecting the army, they were both assassinated. The incident was known as Sarajevo Assassination.

—After gaining unlimited support from Germany, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914 and forced it to reply within 48 hours.

—As Serbia refused to allow Austrian officials to enter Serbia and join in the investigation of the assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July.By 4 August, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France and Britain had all joined the war. The First World War began.

BCourse of WWI

—The war was fought between the Central Powers and the Allies.The Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.The Allies had 27 members, including Serbia, Russia, France, Belgium, Britain, Japan, Italy, China, and the US.

—The major development of the war was summarised as follows:

In 1914, the Schlieffen Planof Germany failed. Since then, the Central Powers had had to fight a two-front war.

In July 1916, both Britain and Germany started to use warplanes in the War. The trench warfare became less effective.

In 1917, Germany started the unrestricted submarine warfare, which led to the sinking of the Lusitania and threatened the interests of the US.

In April 1917, the US declared war on Germany.

In November 1917, the October Revolution broke out in Russia, and a communist regime was set up. Russia then withdrew from the War. The fighting on the Eastern Front ended.

Between September and November of 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary surrendered one after the other.

Finally, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies in November. The First World War ended.

CResults of the First World War

i.Paris Peace Conference

1Calling of the conference

—In January 1919, the Paris Peace Conference was held to discuss the post-war settlements. The defeated powers and Russia were not invited to the conference.

—The treaty terms were mainly decided by the ‘Big Three’: Woodrow Wilson (President of the US), Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain), and Georges Clemenceau (Premier of France)

2Objectives of the Big Three

The Big Three / Objectives
Clemenceau / —He was determined to gain back the huge indemnity and Alsace-Lorraine that France had lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War.
—He believed that Germany should be greatly weakened to such a degree that it could never threaten France again.
Wilson / —He believed that world peace could only be maintained through international co-operation, and introduced the ‘Fourteen Points’.
—He thought that the victorious powers should not punish Germany too harshly in order to prevent it from taking revenge.
Lloyd George / —He tried to mediate the conflicts between Wilson and Clemenceau.
—Since Britain did not want to be threatened by Germany again, he suggested that Germany should lose its colonies and its naval power should be weakened.
—But he agreed that Germany should not be punished too harshly because it might seek revenge.

ii.Treaty of Versailles (Germany)

—In June 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versaillesand accepted the following terms:

1Territorial changes

—Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France and cede territories to Poland, Denmark, Belgium and Lithuania.

—The Saarwas to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years, and its coalfields were to be ceded to France.

—Territories gained from Russia were to be returned. Some of these would be made new and independent states: Finland, Estonia, Latviaand Lithuania.

—All overseas colonies were to be surrendered and they would be administered by the victorious powers under the mandate of the League of Nations.

—The independence of Austria should be recognised and respected. No union with Austria was allowed.

2Limitation of armaments

—Germany was disarmed. It had to reduce its army, downsize its navy and abolish conscription. It was banned from having an airforce, tanks or submarines.

—The Rhineland was made a demilitarised zone.

3War guilt

—Germany had to bear the sole responsibility for having caused the First World War.

4Reparations

—Germany had to pay a huge sum of reparations.

iii.Treaty of St. Germain (Austria)

—According to this treaty:

Austria-Hungary was divided into two independent republics: Austria and Hungary.

Two independent nation states, Czechoslovakiaand Yugoslavia, were created out of the former empire of Austria-Hungary. Their independence was recognized by Austria.

Austria ceded territories to Czechoslovakia, Poland, Italy, Romaniaand Yugoslavia.

Union with Germany was not allowed to prevent Germany from becoming strong again.

Austria had to pay reparations and reduce its army and navy.

iv.Other treaties (Bulgaria, Hungary and the Ottoman Empire)

—These countries had to cede land to neighbouring countries and pay reparations.

—The Ottoman Empire gave up a great deal of territories. Land was ceded to Italy and Greece, while Iraq, Palestineand Transjordan were given to Britain, and Syriaand Lebanonto France.

IICauses of the Second World War

ASignificance of the Paris Peace Conference on the international order

i.Rise of totalitarianism

—Totalitarianism is a political ideology whereby the government dominates all political, social and economic activities in a nation.

1Rise of Fascism in Italy (1922)

1.1Discontent with the Paris Peace Settlements

—Italy was not able to get Dalmatia and Fiume. Therefore, they were very discontented with the Paris Peace Settlements.

—Italian nationalists occupied Fiume in September 1919. The victorious powers forced the Italian government to agree to make Fiume a free city under the mandate of the League of Nations.

—However, this caused widespread discontent in Italy. The Italians wanted a strong leader to regain national glory and prestige for Italy.

1.2Foreign expansion of Fascist Italy

—In 1923, Italy occupied the Greek island of Corfu. Under the mediation of the League of Nations, Mussolini agreed to withdraw his troops, but managed to force Greece to pay a large sum of money as compensation.

—In 1924, Mussolini reached an agreement with Yugoslavia and got Fiume.

—From 1935-1936, Italy invaded Abyssinia. Mussolini declared the union of Abyssinia, Eritreaand Somaliland into ‘Italian East Africa’.

—In 1936, a civil war broke out in Spain. Together, Mussolini and Hitler provided weapons for General Francisco Franco to overthrow the Spanish government.

—The joint intervention of Italy and Germany in the Spanish Civil War laid the foundation for the formation of the Berlin-Rome Axis.

—In 1939, it formally annexed Albania. After the annexation, Italy signed the Pact of Steel, a military alliance, with Germany.

2Rise of Nazism in Germany (1933)

2.1Resentment about the Treaty of Versailles

Harsh treaty terms

—The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh punishments on Germany.All these harsh terms aroused among the Germans great humiliation and a strong desire for revenge.

Territorial arrangements leading to German discontent

—The victorious powers recognised the independence of Poland and enlarged its territory.Many Germans came under the rule of Poland as a result.

—In addition, the victorious powers gave the Sudetenland, which was inhabited by 3 million Germans, to the newly founded Czechoslovakia, and banned the union of Germany and Austria.

—The Germans thought that they were unfairly treated because they enjoyed no right of national self-determination, while the Poles and the Czechs did.

2.2Discontent about the Weimar Republic

—The Weimar Republic was unpopular among the people because it had signed the Treaty of Versailles. The Germans longed for a strong government that could take revenge for Germany.

2.3Foreign expansion of Nazi Germany

—In 1935, Germany re-introduced conscription, built up an airforce and expanded the navy.

—In March 1936, Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by sending troops to the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland.

—In November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. When Italy joined the pact later, the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was formed.

—In March 1938, Germany declared Anschluss (union with Austria) and occupied Austria. It violated the terms which prohibited the union of Germany and Austria.

—In September 1938, Germany demanded to have the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, and the French Premier, Edouard Daladiersigned the Munich Agreement with Hitler to force Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland to Germany.

—In March 1939, Germany annexed the whole of Czechoslovakia.

—In August 1939, after signing the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with the USSR, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939.

—Britain and France declared war on Germany. The Second World War began.

ii.Changes in balance of power

1Collapse of traditional empires

—Before the First World War, there was still a balance of power in Europe. Some traditional empires collapsed due to the territorial arrangements made at the Paris Peace Conference.

—The Treaty of Versailles turned the large German Empire into a divided nation.

2Establishment of new nation states

—Under the principle of national self-determination, the ethnic minorities in the former empires created their own nation states. As a result, Finland and Yugoslavia were founded.

—However, these newly founded nations were not strong enough to defend themselves, and they became easy targets of invasion for Hitler in the 1930s.

3Decline of Europe and rise of US and Japan

—Germany and Austria were greatly weakened after the Paris Peace Conference. The political and economic strengths of Britain and France were undermined due to the war destruction. They were also heavily indebted to the US.

—On the contrary, Japan gained interests in Northeast China. Japan had rapid industrial development and became an industrial power that threatened European supremacy in Asia.

iii.Stability in Europe undermined by post-war economic difficulties

1Post-war economic difficulties in Europe

1.1Italy

—Agriculture and industry in Italy were badly damaged. Inflation was serious. Many returning soldiers were unemployed. People led a very difficult life.

—The Italian Socialist Party grew in strength. Since it organised many strikes and caused social instability, the landlords, industrialists and businessmen in Italy supported the Fascist Party, which was strongly anti-communist and promised to restore stability in Italy.