Online Resource 1 Home range sizes and radii (m) of small carnivores derived from radio-telemetry studies in Thailand. Number of animals for each study was provided for each sex (M=male, F=female). Radii (m) of home ranges calculated from reported averaged home range sizes (sq. km). In some species when seasonal home range sizes were not available, calculation was based on the proportion of radii (c. 1/3) to home ranges reported in other species.
Species / No. animal studied / Averaged HR (km2) / HR radius (m) / Seasonal HR (km2) / Seasonal HR radius (m)Large Indian civet / 5 (2M, 3F) / 6.8 / 1,470 / 2.2 / 830
Masked palm civet / 5 (2M, 3F) / 3.8 / 1,100 / 1.3 / 640
Common palm civet / 5 (4M, 1F) / 5.4 / 1,310 / 1.8 / 750
Yellow-throated marten / 5 (4M, 1F) / 7.2 / 1,510 / 2.4 / 870
Crab-eating mongoose / 1 (F) / NA / NA / 1.9 / 770
Leopard cat / 30 (18M, 12F) / 9.1 / 1,700 / 3 / 970
Sources
Large Indian civet: Rabinowitz 1991, Simcharoen et al. 1999 (in Thai)
Masked palm civet: Rabinowitz 1991, Grassman 1998, Chutipong et al. 2015
Common palm civet: Rabinowitz 1991, Grassman 1998
Yellow-throated marten: Grassman et al. 2005a
Crab-eating mongoose: W. Chutipong (unpublished data)
Leopard cat: Grassman et al. 2005b, Austin et al. 2007
Online Resource 2a Species list of murid rodents captured during surveys between 2007/2008, 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 at two study sites (Tikong and Sesawo). Number of individuals of species captured were reported along with average weights (grams) and standard deviations (grams). NA indicates standard deviation cannot be calculated.
Individuals / mean weight (grams) / SD weight (grams)Year 2007/2008 / 14
Maxomys surifer / 11 / 135.5 / 25.0
Leopoldamys sabanus / 3 / 216.7 / 28.9
Year 2010/2011 / 152
Mus cervicolor / 76 / 29.4 / 9.6
Maxomys surifer / 38 / 132.8 / 53.5
Niviventer fulvescens / 10 / 123.0 / 60.5
Rattus exulans / 9 / 86.1 / 16.9
Leopoldamys sabanus / 6 / 205.0 / 88.3
Berylmys spp. / 4 / 95.0 / 0.0
Rattus rattus / 2 / 150.0 / 35.4
Unknown / 2 / 100.0 / 21.2
Hapalomys longicaudatus / 1 / 45.0 / NA
Mus caroli / 1 / 25.0 / NA
Mus cf. caroli / 1 / 35.0 / NA
Mus shortridgei / 1 / 40.0 / NA
Niviventer cremoriventer / 1 / 135.0 / NA
Year 2011/2012 / 168
Mus cervicolor / 96 / 20.0 / 5.6
Maxomys surifer / 37 / 125.4 / 34.8
Rattus exulans / 18 / 48.1 / 16.7
Leopoldamys sabanus / 6 / 131.7 / 50.1
Niviventer fulvescens / 6 / 80.0 / 20.7
Niviventer cf. langbianis / 2 / 110.0 / 7.1
Niviventer cremoriventer / 2 / 95.0 / 42.4
Unknown / 1 / 55.0 / NA
Online Resource 2b Species list of fruiting plants (small trees [1 cm < DBH < 10 cm], trees [≥ 10 cm], and woody climbers [> 5 cm]) and number of stems bearing fruits from transects and plots during the surveys between 2007/2008, 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 at two study sites (Tikong and Sesawo).
Dalbergia cana / 20 / Memecylon plebejum / 19 / Cyathocalyx martabanicus / 10
Aporosa villosa / 12 / Ficus spp. / 15 / Memecylon plebejum / 9
Symplocos racemosa / 11 / Gmelina arborea / 15 / Toddalia asiatica / 9
Memecylon plebejum / 10 / Meliosma simplicifolia / 11 / Ampelocissus martini / 8
Gmelina arborea / 8 / Syzygium cumini / 11 / Calamus sp. / 7
Glochidion rubrum / 6 / Aglaia sp. / 10 / Bischofia javanica / 4
Microcos paniculata / 6 / Glochidion rubrum / 10 / Knema erratica / 4
Caryota mitis / 5 / Litsea glutinosa / 10 / Litsea glutinosa / 4
Colona winitii / 5 / Caryota mitis / 9 / Acacia concinna / 3
Bauhinia variegata / 4 / Pandanus sp. / 9 / Acronychia pedunculata / 3
Aglaia sp. / 3 / Ficus hispida / 8 / Dillenia ovata / 3
Antidesma sootepense / 3 / Polyalthia cf. viridis / 8 / Pandanus sp. / 3
Brassiopsis sp. / 3 / Ampelocissus martini / 7 / Chaerospondias axillaris / 2
Cassia fistula / 3 / Colona winitii / 7 / Ficus callosa / 2
Dillenia ovata / 3 / Acer oblongum / 6 / Glochidion sphaerogynum / 2
Glochidion eriocarpum / 3 / Magnolia baillonii / 6 / Gnetum gnemon / 2
Micromelum minutum / 3 / Symplocos racemosa / 6 / Acrocarpus fraxinifolius / 1
Spondias pinnata / 3 / Tarennoidea wallichii / 6 / Artrabrotrys sp. / 1
Toddalia asiatica / 3 / Cyathocalyx martabanicus / 5 / Artrocarpus lakoocha / 1
Turpinia pomifera / 3 / Aporosa villosa / 4 / Balakata baccata / 1
Aglaia (not spectabilis) / 2 / Dillenia ovata / 4 / Cassia fistula / 1
Chionanthus ramiflorus / 2 / Knema erratica / 4 / Elaeocarpus sphaericus / 1
Cyathocalyx martabanicus / 2 / Melianthus suavis / 4 / Ficus altissima / 1
Euonymus colonoides / 2 / Microcos paniculata / 4 / Ficus annulata / 1
Ficus hispida / 2 / Phyllanthus emblica / 4 / Magnolia baillonii / 1
Grewia eriocarpa / 2 / Syzygium cf. cinereum / 4 / Melianthus suavis / 1
Lannea colomandelica / 2 / Cinnamomum cf. verum / 3 / Polyalthia sp. / 1
Magnolia baillonii / 2 / Dillenia parviflora / 3 / Syzygium cumini / 1
Acer oblongum / 1 / Gnetum gnemon / 3 / Turpinia pomifera / 1
Ampelocissus martini / 1 / Toddalia asiatica / 3
Celtis tetrandra / 1 / Albizia sp. / 2
Dysoxylum sp. / 1 / Ardisia colorata / 2
Ficus geniculata / 1 / Balakata baccata / 2
Ficus sp. / 1 / Bischofia javanica / 2
Gluta obovata / 1 / Chaerospondias axillaris / 2
Litsea glutinosa / 1 / Chionanthus ramiflorus / 2
Piper sp. / 1 / Chukrasia tabularis / 2
Polyalthia sp. / 1 / Cinnamomum cf. inners / 2
Terminalia chebula / 1 / Dalbergia sp. / 2
Unknown sp1 / 1 / Lannea colomandelica / 2
Lophopetalum wallichii / 2
Protium serratum / 2
Pterocarpus macrocarpus / 2
Pyrenaria garrettiana / 2
Shima wallichii / 2
Spondias pinnata / 2
Xantolis burmanicus / 2
Acacia concinna / 1
Antidesma sootepense / 1
Butea manosperma / 1
Canthium glabrum / 1
Carellia brachiata / 1
Celastrus monospermus / 1
Cratoxylum formosum / 1
Dysoxylum sp. / 1
Eriobotrya bengalensis / 1
Euonymus colonoides / 1
Ficus religiosa / 1
Flacourtia sp. / 1
Fraxinus floribunda / 1
Helicia nilagiri / 1
Horsfieldia glaba / 1
Ixora sp. / 1
Maesa ramentacea / 1
Micromelum minutum / 1
Mitragyna rotundifolia / 1
Neonauclea sessifolia / 1
Nephelium hypoleucum / 1
Olea sp. / 1
Polyalthia sp. / 1
Terminalia bellirica / 1
Ternstroemia gymnanthera / 1
Turpinia pomifera / 1
Online Resource 3 Diet of at least two palm civets (common palm civet and masked palm civet) derived from scats collected during the period of 2007–2012 (n=68). Percentage of occurrence (PO) defined as the number of occurrences of food type X 100/total number of fecal samples (Genovesi et al. 1996). Relative percentage of occurrence (RPO) defined as the number of occurrences of food type X 100/total occurrences of all food types in all samples (Loveridge and Macdonald 2003).
Species / occurrence / PO / RPOAmpelocissus martini / 13 / 19 / 14
Cayratia trifolia / 10 / 15 / 11
Musa acuminata / 10 / 15 / 11
Ficus spp. / 7 / 10 / 8
Unknown woody climber / 7 / 10 / 8
Syzygium cumini / 5 / 7 / 5
Caryota mitis / 5 / 7 / 5
Memecylon pleblejum / 5 / 7 / 5
Polyalthia sp. / 3 / 4 / 3
Pandanus sp. / 3 / 4 / 3
rodent hairs / 3 / 4 / 3
Unknown tree1 / 3 / 4 / 3
Unknown tree2 / 3 / 4 / 3
arthropods / 2 / 3 / 2
Cassia fistula / 3 / 4 / 3
Antidesma spp. / 1 / 1 / 1
Cyathocalyx martabanicus / 1 / 1 / 1
Diospyros spp. / 1 / 1 / 1
insects / 1 / 1 / 1
Phoenix loureirii / 1 / 1 / 1
Polyaltia viridis / 1 / 1 / 1
Sapindaceae / 1 / 1 / 1
Solanum torvum / 1 / 1 / 1
Unknown woody climber2 / 1 / 1 / 1
Unknown tree3 / 1 / 1 / 1
Notes: Scats were collected and identified based on accompanying foot prints (50%, n=68) that clearly showed either masked palm or common palm civet. Small-toothed palm civet also occur within study sites but the species is highly arboreal and rarely come to ground (Duckworth and Nettelbeck 2007), thus we are confident that scats from palm civets were of the former two species. Placement and characteristics of scats were also considered, for example, 48% were collected from leaning woody climbers, logs or bamboos crossing small streams or connecting one tree to another. These scats showed characteristics of palm civets, with obvious indigestible seeds and sometimes covered by plant mucus; straight and cylindrical and less than 2 cm diameter, rounded at both ends and lack of a pungent odor, as described in Su Su (2005) and Muddapa et al. (2010). Some scats (2%) were collected from trapped animals (masked palm civet) during a concurrent study. We recognize that these scats, without accompanied footprints, can belong to any of three palm civets co-occurring in the study sites, especially those collected from logs, woody climber and bamboos. Since we did not try to relate this information to species of civets and these palm civets can have a large overlap in the plant species consumed as suggested by a number of studies in the region (e.g., Rabinowitz 1991; Su Su and Sale 2007; Nakashima et al. 2010), we can only use this information as possible supporting evidence.
Online Resource 4 Mammalian carnivores of Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand, detected by camera trapping surveys between 2007/8, 2010/11 and 2011/12 at two survey areas; Tikong and Sesawo. n indicates number of active camera traps for each year. Shown are number of active camera trap locations where species were detected and independent events (separated by 0.5 hour, in parenthesis).
Size / Family / Species common name / Scientific name / 2007/8 (n=29) / 2010/11 (n=102) / 2011/12(n=41) / Statusa / Weight (kg)b
Small / CANIDAE / Asiatic jackal / Canis aureus / 2 (3) / 2 (3) / - (-) / LC / 8-9
Dhole‡ / Cuon alpinus / 1 (1) / 2 (2) / 5 (7) / EN / 10-20
MUSTELIDAE / Yellow-throated marten / Martes flavigula / 2 (4) / 15 (15) / 6 (9) / LC / 2-3
Ferret badger / Melogale sp. / 1 (9) / - (-) / - (-) / - / 1-3
Hog badger / Arctonyx collaris / - (-) / 1 (1) / 1 (1) / NT / 7-14
Otter species / 2 (8) / 4 (10) / 1 (5) / - / 1-11
VIVERRIDAE / Small Indian civet / Viverricula indica / - (-) / 1 (1) / 1 (1) / LC / 2-4
Large Indian civet / Viverra zibetha / 13 (37) / 49 (116) / 26 (200) / NT / 8-9
Masked palm civet / Paguma larvata / 6 (14) / 16 (23) / 11 (14) / LC / 6-7
Common palm civet / Paradoxurus hermaphroditus / 2 (8) / 11 (14) / 9 (12) / LC / 2-5
Binturong / Arctictis binturong / - (-) / 4 (4) / 1 (4) / VU / 9-20
PRIONODONIDAE / Banded Linsang / Prionodon linsang / 1 (1) / 8 (11) / 5 (6) / LC / c. 1
HERPESTIDAE / Crab-eating mongoose / Urva urva / 5 (22) / 18 (32) / 10 (41) / LC / 3-4
FELIDAE / Leopard Cat / Prionailurus bengalensis / 5 (7) / 9 (9) / 4 (6) / LC / 3-5
Asiatic golden cat / Pardofelis temminckii / 1 (2) / - (-) / 3 (3) / NT / 12-15
Medium / Clouded leopard / Neofelis nebulosa / 1 (1) / - (-) / - (-) / VU / 16-23
Large / Leopard / Panthera pardus / 1 (1) / 11 (18) / 7 (15) / NT / 45-65
Tiger / Panthera tigris / 12 (19) / 7 (12) / 3 (3) / EN / 180-300
URSIDAE / Asiatic black bear / Ursus thibethanus / 3 (3) / 7 (7) / 8 (16) / VU / > 100
Sun bear / Helarctos malayanus / 4 (4) / 5 (6) / 3 (3) / VU / 27-65
a IUCN 2013
b Lekagul and McNeely 1977
‡ considered a large carnivore based on diet
Number of active camera traps was different from that used in the occupancy analysis, which used only camera traps with a survey effort ≥ 32 trap days (155 used cameras) while this table reports all active cameras across 3 years (n=172 cameras).
Online Resource 5a Model selection based on spatially explicit capture-recapture of terrestrial rodents from two study areas (Tikong and Sesawo) in three habitats (GEF, MDF and SEF) across three years (2007/8, 2010/11, and 2011/12) in Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand. Only subset models with accumulated AICc weights ≥ 95% were displayed. K is the number of parameters estimated in each model. ΔAICc is the absolute difference in the Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) value adjusted for small sample sizes (AICc) between the best-fit model and the model under consideration, wi is the Akaike weight, which provides a measure of relative support for each model. Detection function is the best function used to fit the data based on model structure. g0 = probability of detection at the activity center of an animal, σ = spatial scale of movement following Efford et al. (2009). Bold models were the top models used to derive the estimates of density and associated 95% confidence intervals for each year.
Year / Model name / Model structure / K / ΔAICc / wi / detection function2007.8 / Time factor (t) / g0~t, σ ~1 / 6 / 0 / 1 / half normal
2010.11 / Site learned response (k) / g0~k, σ ~1, z~1 / 4 / 0 / 0.71 / hazard rate
Site learned response (k) / g0~k, σ ~k, z~1 / 5 / 1.79 / 0.29 / hazard rate
2011.12 / animal x site learned response (bk) / g0~bk, σ ~1, z~1 / 4 / 0 / 1 / hazard rate
Online Resource 5b Parameters estimated from top ranked model of each year (g0 and σ) and its associated 95% confidence intervals. CVD is a coefficient of variation of estimated densities.
Year / g0 (95% CIs) / σ (95% CIs) / CVD2007.8 / 0.05 (0.01, 0.16) / 20.5 (9.4, 44.6) / 0.71
2010.11 / 0.03 (0.01, 0.06) / 28.3 (22.2, 36.0) / 0.38 – 0.50
2011.12 / 0.07 (0.05, 0.10) / 27.7 (23.3, 32.9) / 0.23 – 0.35
Online Resource 5c Density estimates of murid rodents (rodents/ha) based on the top model of each year from two study sites, Tikong (TK) and Sesawo (SSW). For the last two years, there were four estimates from each site. Black solid bars are estimates from evergreen forests, white open bars are estimates from deciduous forests. Bars represent 95% confidence intervals.