History of Forensic Science

History of Forensic Science

With the giant strides that we have taken in the field of forensic science, now it is possible to identify a person involved in a particular crime on the basis of a strand of hair found at the crime scene. Join us as we trace the developments of this field....

The application of scientific methods to examine the evidences gathered in order to solve queries, thereby helping the legal system to acknowledge the truth is known as forensic science. These evidences may range from fingerprints to blood samples or from a memory card to a hard disk. The word 'forensic' was derived from the Latin word 'forensis' meaning 'before the forum'.

Forensic Science History

The first documented use of medical knowledge to solve a crime can be traced to a Chinese book, written in 1248, titled Xi Yuan Ji Lu or 'Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified', written by Song Ci. It contained descriptions of how to distinguish a death due to drowning from a death due to strangulation.

The 18th and 19th centuries saw a great deal of progress in the field of forensic science in Europe. One of the first recorded instances of forensic science application in solving a legal case came in 1784, in England, when a torn piece of paper recovered from the bullet wound in the victim's head matched with the other piece of paper from John Tom's pocket, which led to his conviction.

Fortunatus Fidelis, an Italian doctor, is regarded as the first person to practice modern forensic medicine, way back in 1598. Later, in the 19th century, forensic medicine became a recognized branch of medicine. In 1806, German chemist, Valentin Ross developed a method to detect poison in the walls of a victim's stomach. In a murder trial in 1836, James Marsh, was able to identify arsenic intake as the cause of death with the help of forensic science.

Edmond Locard, a renowned criminologist from France, formulated the basic principle of forensic science, which says, "Every contact leaves a trace". In 1910, he established the world's first laboratory that was fully dedicated to crime analysis, in association with the Lyons Police Department. His seven volume work; Traité de Criminalistique proved to be of great help in many criminal investigations. In 1932, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) established its own forensics laboratory, known as Federal Crime Laboratory with J. Edgar Hoover as its director.

Over a period of time, forensic science has been broadly divided into a few sub-divisions, each specializing in a particular aspect. While digital forensics is applied to prove scientific methods and techniques to recover data from digital media, forensic toxicology is applied to determine the effects of drugs and poison on living beings. Forensic anthropology is utilized to recover and identify skeletal remains whereas veterinary forensics is used to solve crime involving animals.

Forensic DNA Analysis

The DNA of every person is unique, with the only exception being identical twins. An individual's DNA profile can be generated by using samples from blood, bone or hair. Analyzing the DNA samples collected from the crime-scene with those of the suspect for the presence of a set of specific DNA markers can serve as the proof of crime. DNA profiling was first described by an English geneticist, named Alec Jeffreys in 1985. It was first used in England to convict Colin Pitchfork for the murder of two girls, while in the United States, the first instance came with the conviction of Tommy Lee Andrews for the case related to a series of sexual assaults.

The last two decades have seen a tremendous rise in the use of DNA evidence to solve criminal cases as well as paternity detection. Today, forensic science is used in the investigation of every major crime, with a few hundred forensic laboratories contributing to the cause in the United States alone. Its popularity in the law enforcement community plays a crucial role in ensuring that justice prevails.

By AbhijitNaik

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What is Forensic Science?

Does criminology interest you? Ever wondered what is forensic science all about? Well, then you've hit the right site my friend!

Certainly going back to Sherlock Holmes we have a tradition of forensic science featured in detective stories.

~ Jeffery Deaver

If solving crime scene mysteries and cracking criminal cases interests you to the extent of a passion - so much so that you wouldn't mind making a career out of it - then a forensics career is just the thing for you! So what is forensic science all about and what all disciplinary scopes does it spread across? Let's take a look at the details of the history of forensics and what all disciplinary specializations are covered within its scope.

A Brief Overview of Forensics

The science of forensics is the accumulation and application of a wide field of combined knowledge borrowed from a large number of scientific and semi-scientific disciplines to reveal facts about ambiguous situations and answer questions pertaining to unexplained occurrences that hold relevance to the legal system of the society. These situations and occurrences may be of civil as well as criminal nature. The first historical record of forensic methodology and investigation dates back to the years 1247 and 1248 when a method of solving criminal cases by the application of knowledge pertaining to the fields of medicine and entomology was first written down by Song Ci, a forensic medical expert of the Song Dynasty, in his most acclaimed work Xi Juan Yi Lu (which translates as Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified). This book was a collection of records of actual criminal cases (mostly murders and homicides) and the methods used in solving each case which were forensic in nature.

Juan Vucetich pioneered the use of fingerprints on the crime scene to locate the criminals in the early 1800s. In 16th century Europe, a number of medical practitioners came up with evidence that the cause of death, whether it is natural, accidental or violent, can be ascertained by examining the effects of the cause of death upon various internal organs. A list of such medical geniuses who contributed towards the gradual development and popularization of forensic investigative methods include such names as Ambroise Pare, Fortunato Fidelis, Paolo Zacchia, Fodere, Johann Peter Frank, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Valentin Ross, James Marsh, Bernard Spilsbury, Francis Camps, Keith Simpson and Sydney Smith.

Although the forensic method derives their methods and investigative techniques from a lot of disciplines, its relationship with biochemistry and technology is very prominent and significant. A sound knowledge of biochemistry is desired as most of the forensic investigation in criminal cases involves handling and investigation of chemicals, bodily fluids and biological tissues. Also, a good command over various technologies helps in getting most accurate results from samples collected at crime scenes. Also, a good knowledge of computer science and information technology also come handy when dealing with cold-blooded and well planned crimes.

Fields of Forensic Studies

The following list enumerates the various different branches of forensic science that offer a lot of career scope for people with diverse academic backgrounds and disciplinary specializations.

Forensic Podiatry

Forensic Accounting

Trace Evidence Analysis

Forensic Anthropology

Forensic Archeology

Forensic Botany

Forensic Astronomy

Computer Forensics

Forensic Chemistry

Forensic Dactyloscopy

Criminalistics

Forensic DNA Analysis

Digital Forensics

Forensic Entomology

Forensic Engineering

Forensic Limmology

Forensic Geology

Forensic Meteorology

Forensic Linguistics

Forensic Optometry

Forensic Odontology

Forensic Psychology

Forensic Pathology

Forensic Serology

Forensic Seismology

Forensic Video Analysis

Forensic Toxicology

Mobile Device Forensics

That, I presume, more or less answers the titular question and also gives a brief historical outline of this scientific method of solving civil and criminal cases for the legal system to arrive at a conclusion for imparting and upholding justice. Today, with the all round advances in science and technology, forensic studies and methods have got a major face lift in terms of investigative efficiency and accuracy of results and this has greatly accelerated the pace of civil and criminal investigations.

By Ishani Chatterjee Shukla

Last Updated: 9/23/2011

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The Forensic Laboratory

The forensic laboratory is where the essence of forensic science takes place, with one objective - to deduce all of what is possible from evidence. Thus, there is the need for multiple departments, personnel and methods of analysis.

General Locations

Almost all aspects of forensic science in one place, where skilled scientists and specialists who focus on specific areas of forensic science work together to unravel and solve even the most intricate of crimes. Forensic laboratories are commonly attached to universities so the scientists who work there can give students studying forensics a firsthand experience. Large police departments may have their own forensic laboratory but otherwise, forensic laboratories are independently run.

* Scanning electronmicroscopy is one of the many laboratory techniques available as a result of technology improvements.

The Principles

Forensic laboratories all run following the same basic rules and regulations. Any item of evidence that enters the lab must never come into contact with anything that could contaminate it. Its progression through each of the lab's departments must therefore be fully recorded so that it can be perused at any time. Once the sample is in the lab, the most straightforward diagnosis is always carried out first i.e to verify that the item is really what it is, before moving onto more expensive, but precise procedures to discover the evidence the item might hold. Any tests that may destroy the piece of evidence are carried out last, after all the other tests have been completed.

The Departments

Forensic laboratories contain the most up-to-date technology and techniques for enhancing and analyzing fingerprints, shoeprints and tire marks. As specific methods of analyzing evidence at a crime scene are not practical, the objects are recovered and brought into the lab. Below are some common units found in many major labs?

Trace Evidence

In most labs, a unit commonly known as a 'trace evidence unit' forms an area where scientists look for clues in evidence such as hair, fabric, dust, fiber and skeletal remains.

Chemistry

A chemistry unit is present in any laboratory and is used to test samples of blood and urine for alcohol, drugs and poisoning. Chemistry sets are also used in the analysis of synthetic materials such medicines, dyes and stains. Specialists in the area of chemistry also rely on gas chromatographs, mass spectrometers and microscopes to identify chemicals.

Serology Top

The serology unit specializes in the identification and analysis of bloodstains and other bodily fluids, as well as DNA sequencing. The most common of the DNA tests, the polymerase chain reaction, is now able to be performed in small laboratories, thanks to advancements in this area, however, the analysis of mitochondrial DNA is still only performed in large forensic laboratories.

Materials

Material units are used to identify and analyze metals, paints, ceramics, soil and wood in an attempt to trace a crime back to a possible suspect. The biology unit is in charge of analyzing all biological evidence such a seeds and plants.

Firearms

Firearms units test weapons to see which weapon made the mark on an object or wounded or killed a person. To be able to carry out these tests, firearms specialists study the used bullet cartridges and use shooting baths to fire weapons, identify the bullet marks and establish the firing distance.

Photography

Photography plays a vital role in the forensic laboratory, as photography is used to document crime scene evidence. Processing resources and dark room services allow specialists in the area of photography to analyze photographs and bring the evidence to light.

Others

Large labs also have arson and explosives experts as well as specialists in software, computer data, files, documents, audios and video recordings. The units available in different labs will vary from one to the other, however, the need for certain analyses and the budget of each lab determines the availability of the departments.

Efficiency and Staff

Forensics laboratories are extremely complex and involve up to hundreds of people to ensure everything runs quickly and efficiently. Staff ensures that evidence is correctly booked in, prepared and stored, cleans and maintains the lab, as well as servicing the various technical equipment and keeping it looked after. Testing results from the evidence is useful in solving one crime, but when added to a worldwide database, the evidence can be linked to other crimes that the suspect may have committed.

Thinkquest Team 00206