Fluency Selected References

The International Research Foundation

for English Language Education

FLUENCY: SELECTED REFERENCES

(Last updated 4 November 2017)

Adams, M. (1980). Five co-occurring factors in speaking proficiency. In J. R. Firth (Ed.), Measuring spoken language proficiency (pp. 1-6). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Ahmadian, M. J. (2012). The effects of guided careful online planning on complexity, accuracy and fluency in intermediate EFL learners’ oral production: The case of English articles. Language Teaching Research, 16, 129-149. doi:10.1177/1362168811425433

Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011). The effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in EFL learners’ oral production. Language Teaching Research, 15, 35-59. doi:10.1177/1362168810383329

Amiridze, N., David, B.H., & Maclagan, M. (Eds.). (2010). Fillers, pauses and placeholders. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.

Arevart, S., & Nation, I.S.P. (1991). Fluency improvement in a second language. RELC Journal, 22(1), 84-89.

Arevart, S., & Nation, P. (1993). Adjusting fluency and grammar through repetition. In J. W. Oller Jr. (Ed.), Methods that work: Ideas for literacy and language teachers (2nd ed.). (pp. 297-308). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Armstrong, K. M. (2010). Fluency, accuracy and complexity in graded and ungraded writing. Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 690-702.

Baars, B. (Ed.). (1980). On the understanding of temporal variables in speech. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. The Hague: Mouton.

Baese-Berk, M. M. Morrill, T. H. (2015). Speaking rate consistency in native and non-native speakers of English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,138(3), EL223-EL228.

Baker-Smemoe, W., Dewey, D.P., Bown, J., & Martinsen, R.A. (2014). Does measuring L2 utterance fluency equal measuring overall L2 proficiency? Evidence from five languages. Foreign Language Annals, 47(4), 707-728.

Bavelas, J. B. (2000). Nonverbal aspects of fluency. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 91-101).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Beardsmore, H. B. (1974). Testing oral fluency. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 12(4), 317-36.

Bell, C. (2003).L2 speech rate in monologic and dialogic activities. Linguagem & Ensino, 6(2),55-79.

Bohlke, D. (2014). Fluency-oriented second language teaching. In D. M. Brinton, M. Celce-Murcia, M. A. Snow. (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language(121-135). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning.

Bortfeld, H., Leon, S. D., Bloom, J. E., Schober, M. F., & Brennan, S. E. (2001). Disfluency rates in conversation: Effects of age, relationship, topic, role, and gender. Language and speech, 44(2), 123-147.

Brown, J. D. (1990). Fluency and accuracy: Suggestions for research in Brazil. BrazTESOL Newsletter,4(4), 1-2.

Brown, J. D. (avec contributions de LAIRDIL). (1995). Aspects of fluency and accuracy (conférence no4). Toulouse, France: Laboratoire Inter-Universitaire de Recherche en Didactique des Langues [ISSN 1257-1520].

Brown, J. D. (1996). Fluency is an issue in all skills. In G.M. Jacobs & B.R.S. Rajan (Eds.), Who is The Most Talkative of All? Stories for language teacher education (pp. 40-41). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

Brown, J. D. (1996). No credit for teaching fluency. In G.M. Jacobs & B.R.S. Rajan (Eds.), Who is The Most Talkative of All? Stories for language teacher education (pp. 38-39). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

Brown, J. D. (1996). Fluency development. In G. van Troyer (Ed.) JALT ’95: Curriculum and evaluation (pp. 174-179). Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching (also available from ERIC: ED 402 775). Also retrieved from:

Brown, J. D. (2001). Constructive errors and fluency development. Ke-Wave Kaiho, 16,1-3.

Brown, J. D. (2004). Promoting fluency in EFL classroom. In T. Newfield (Ed.), Conversational fluency: Ideology or reality: Proceedings of the JALT Pan-SIG Conference, Kyoto, Japan, 2003. Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching. Also retrieved from the World Wide Web:

Brown, J. D. (2006). Promoting fluency in EFL classrooms. ILI Language Teaching Journal, 2(2), 1-26. Reprinted by permission from the original article: Brown, J. D. (2004). Promoting fluency in EFL classroom. In T. Newfield (Ed.), Conversational fluency: Ideology or reality: Proceedings of the JALT Pan-SIG Conference, Kyoto, Japan, 2003. Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching. Also retrieved from the World Wide Web:

Brumfit, C. (1981). Linguistic specifications for fluency work: How meaningful a question? In R. Richterich & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), Description, présentation, et enseignement des langues. Paris, France: Credif Hatier.

Brumfit, C. (1984). Communicative methodology in language teaching: The roles of fluency and accuracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Brumfit, C. (2000). Accuracy and fluency: The basic polarity. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp.61-73).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Byrnes, H. (1987). Speech as process. Foreign Language Annals, 20, 301-310.

Butcher, A. (1980). Pause and syntactic structure. In H. W. Dehert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. The Hauge: Mouton.

Chafe, W. (1984). Some reasons for hesitating. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on silence(pp 77-89). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Chang, A. C. (2011). The effect of reading while listening to audiobooks: Listening fluency and vocabulary gain. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 21, 43-64.

Clavel, T. (2014). English fluency hopes rest on educational overhaul. The Japan Times, p. 11. Retrieved from

Chambers, F. (1997). What do we mean by fluency? System 24, 4, 535-44.

Cole, R. (Ed.). (1980). Perception and production of fluent speech. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Crown, C., & Feldstein, S. (1985). Psychological correlates of silence and sound in conversational interaction. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp. 31-54). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2000). Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency: Comparisons between read and spontaneous speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111, 6, 2862-73.

Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2000). Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency: Comparisons between read and spontaneous speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111, 6, 2862-73.

Dalton, P., & Hardcastle, W. J. (Eds.). (1977). Disorders of fluency and their effects on communication. London, England: Arnold.

Davies, A. (1985). Communicative language testing. Journal of Applied Linguistics,1, 22-33.

Day, R. (1979). Verbal fluency and the language-bound effect. In C. J. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S-Y. Want (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 57-84). New York, NY: Academic Press.

de Jong, N. (2012). Does time pressure help or hinder oral fluency? In N. de Jong, K. Juffermans, M. Keijzer, & L. Rasier (Eds.), Papers of the Anéla 2012 applied linguistics conference (pp. 43-52). Delft, The Netherlands: Eburon.

de Jong, N., & Perfetti, C. A. (2011). Fluency training in the ESL classroom: An experimental study of fluency development and proceduralization. Language Learning, 61, 533-568. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00620.x

de Jong, N., & Wempe, T. (2009). Praat script to detect syllable nuclei and measure speech rate automatically. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 385-390. doi:10.3758/BRM.41.2.385

Dechert, H. (1980). Pauses and intonation as indicators of verbal planning in second language speech productions: Two examples from a case study. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 271-285). The Hague: Mouton.

Dechert, H., & Raupach, M. (Eds.). (1980). Temporal variables in speech. The Hague: Mouton.

Dechert, H., & Raupach, M. (1980). Towards a crosslinguistic assessment of speech production. Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.

Deese, J. (1980). Pauses, prosody, and the demands of production in language. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Frieda Goldman-Eisler (pp. 69-84). The Hague: Mouton.

Derwing, T., Rossiter, M., Munro, M., & Thomson, R. (2004). Second language fluency: Judgments on different tasks. Language learning, 54, 655-679. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00282.x

Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. I. (2008). A longitudinal study of ESL learners’ fluency and comprehensibility development. Applied Linguistics, 29, 359-380. doi:10.1093/applin/amm041

Derwing, T.M., Munro, M. J., Thomson, R. I., & Rossiter, M. J. (2009). The relationship between L1 fluency and L2 fluency development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31, 533-557.

Diepenbroek, L. G., & Derwing, T. M. (2013). To what extent do popular ESL textbooks incorporate oral fluency and pragmatic development? TESL Canada Journal, 30, 1-20.

Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definitions and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47, 173-210.

Doutrich, D. (2000). Cultural fluency, marginality, and the sense of self. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 141-159).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Drommel, R. H. (1980). Towards a subcategorization of speech pauses. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 227-238). The Hague: Mouton.

Dunkel, P. (1986). Developing listening fluency in L2: Theoretical principles and pedagogical considerations. Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 315-323.

Ejzenberg, R. (2000). The juggling act of oral fluency: A psycho-sociolinguistic metaphor. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 87-313).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Ellis, R., & Yuan, F. (2004). The effects of planning on fluency, complexity, and accuracy in second language narrative writing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(1), 59-84.

Eskey, D. E. (1983). Meanwhile back in the real world…: Accuracy and fluency in second language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 315-323.

Faure, M. (1980). Results of a contrastive study of hesitation phenomena in French and German. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 287-290). The Hague: Mouton.

Fiksdal, S. (2000). Fluency as a function of time and rapport. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 128-140).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Fillmore, C. J. (1979). On fluency. In C. J. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S.-Y. Yang (Eds.), Individual differences in language behavior (pp. 85-101). New York, NY: Academic Press.

Fillmore, C. J. (2000). On fluency. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 43-60).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Freed, B. F. (1995). What makes up think that students who study abroad become fluent? In B. F. Freed (Ed.), Second language acquisition in a study abroad context (pp. 123-148). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Freed, B. F. (2000). Is fluency, like beauty, in the eyes (and ears) of the beholder? In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 243-265).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Freed, B., Segalowitz, N., & Dewey, D. (2004). Context of learning and second language fluency in French: Comparing regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic immersion programs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 275-301. doi:10.1017/S0272263104262064

Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M., & Jenkins, J. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239-256.

Galante, A., & Thomson, R. I. (2017). The effectiveness of drama as an interactional approach for the development of second language oral fluency, comprehensibility, and accentedness. TESOL Quarterly, 51(1), 115-142.

Gall, M. D., Hobby, A. K., & Craik, K. H. (1969). Non-linguistic factors in oral language productivity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 29, 871-874.

Gatbonton, E., & Segalowitz, S. (1988). Creative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework. TESOL Quarterly, 22(3), 473-492.

Gatbonton, E., & Segalowitz, N. (2005). Rethinking communicative language teaching: A focus on access to fluency. Canadian Modern Language Review, 61, 325-353.

Geddes, M., & White, R. (1978). The use of semi-scripted simulated authentic speech in listening comprehension. Audio-visual Language Journal, 16(3), 137-145.

Good, D. A., & Butterworth, B. L. (1980). Hesitancy as conversational resource: Some methodological implications. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 145-152). The Hague: Mouton.

Grosjean, F. (1980). Comparative studies of temporal variables in spoken and sign languages: A short review. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 91-106). The Hague: Mouton.

Grosjean, F. (1980). Linguistic structures and performance structures: Studies in pause distribution. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 307-312). The Hague: Mouton.

Hammerly, H. (1991). Fluency and accuracy: Toward balance in language teaching and learning. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.

Hedge, T. (1993). Key concepts in ELT (fluency). ELT Journal, 47(3), 275-277.

Hieke, A. (1981). A content-processing view of hesitation phenomena. Language and Speech, 24(2), 147-160.

Hieke, A. (1984). Linking as a marker of fluent speech. Language and Speech, 27, 343-354.

Hieke, A. E. (1985). A componential approach to oral fluency evaluation. The Modern Language Journal, 69(2), 135-142.

Hieke, A., Kowal, S., & O’Connell, D. C. (1983). The trouble with “articulatory pauses.” Language and Speech, 26, 203-214.

House, J. (1996). Developing pragmatic fluency in English as a foreign language: Routines and metapragmatic awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18(2), 225-252.

Housen, A., & Kuiken, F. (2009). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30, 461-478. doi:10.1093/applin/amp048

Iwahori, Y. (2008). Developing reading fluency: A study of extensive in EFL. Reading in EFL. Foreign Language, 20(1), 70-91.

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Johnson, M. D., Mercado, L., & Acevedo, A. (2012). The effect of planning sub-processes on L2 writing fluency, grammatical complexity, and lexical complexity. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(3), 264-282.

Kim, S. Y., & Chao, R. K. (2009). Heritage language fluency, ethnic identity, and school effort of immigrant Chinese and Mexico adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(1), 27.

Kopenen, M., & Riggenbach, H. (2000). Overview: Varying perspectives on fluency. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 5-24).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Kormos, J., & Dénes, M. (2004). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners. System, 32, 145-64.

Köster, J-P. (1980). Perception of pauses and automatic speech. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 239-245). The Hague: Mouton.

Kowal, S., & O’Connell, D. C. (1980). Pausological research at Saint Louis University. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honour of Freida Goldman-Eisler (pp. 61-66). The Hague: Mouton.

Kromos, J., & Dénes, M. (2004). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners. System, 32, 145-164.

Leeson, R. (1975). Fluency and language teaching. London, UK: Longman Group.

Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40(3), 387-417.

Lennon, P. (2000). The lexical element in spoken second language fluency. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 25-42).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Lynch, T., & Maclean, J. (2000). Exploring the benefits of task repetition and recycling for classroom language learning. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 221-250.

MacGowan-Gilhooly, A. (1991). Fluency first: Reversing the traditional ESL sequence. Journal of Basic Writing, 10, 73-87. Retrieved from

MacKay, D. G. (1982). The problems of flexibility, fluency and speed accuracy trade-off in skilled behavior. Psychological Review, 89,483-506.

McCarthy, M. J. (2005). Fluency and confluence: What fluent speakers do. The Language Teacher 29(6), 26-28.

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Marshall, R. C. (2000). Speech fluency and aphasia. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 74-88).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

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Mora, J. C., & Valls-Ferrer, M. (2012). Oral fluency, accuracy, and complexity in formal instruction and study abroad learning contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 46, 610-641.doi:10.1002/tesq.34

Morales-López, E. (2000). Fluency levels and the organization of conversation in nonnative Spanish speakers’ speech. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 266-286).Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

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O’Brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Freed, B., & Collentine, J. (2007). Phonological memory predicts second language oral fluency gains in adults. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29(4), 557-582.

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