Higher English Close Reading
Analysis 1 Sentence Structure
Sentence structure looks at the way sentences are constructed to create an effect(s) - idea, image, feeling. These type of analysis questions ask that you identify a feature of the sentence and explain its effects thatemphasise the writer's meaning.
You need to know the following terms and understand what they look like in a passage:
question, rhetorical question, statement, fragment, complex sentence, list, climax, anti-climax, balanced sentence, contrast, repetition, antithesis, short sentence, long sentence, parenthesis, word order, inversion and a variety of punctuation.
Identify these features in a sentence and then explain how they emphasise the writer's meaning (by creating effects/connotations on the reader).
You get no marks for identification of sentence features alone. Comments on how the structure affects meaning, conveys writer's attitude, view or feeling, are how the marks are achieved.
Long Sentence and Climax
A long sentence is, generally, a sentence that is longer than just a subject and predicate.
A climax is a list of words, sentences that describe a sequence that leads to a high point.
The following extract is taken from George Orwell's dystopian novel 1984. Winston Smith lives under a tyrannical State with Big Brother as its leader. He sees the only hope for change with the mass of working people, the proletariat or 'proles' as they are called. At one point in the novel he thinks a revolution has started.
Example:
It was a great formidable cry of anger and despair, a deep loud 'Oh-o-o-o-o-oh!' that went humming on like the reverberation of a bell. His heart had leapt. It's started! he had thought. A riot! The proles are breaking loose at last!
Question
Comment on how the author uses sentence structure to convey the events and emotions in this sentence.
4 marks (A)
Answer
The writer uses a long sentence, 'It...bell.' to convey the idea of the length of the cry given out by the 'proles'. (1) The use of a short sentence 'His...leapt.' gets across the idea of the suddeness of the feeling that sprung-up and the length of that feeling. (1) The use of repeated exclamation marks after short sentences emphasise the feeling of power and emotion attached to each thought as it enters his mind along with the build-up of the emotion. (2)
Method:
→ identify a feature of sentence structure
→ if it is possible, try to quote to make clear what you are referring to
→ write about at least one effect for each technique identified with a bit of detail
→ as a general rule, 1 mark is given for 1 effect described with accuracy
Short sentence, List and Comma
A short sentence is a sentence that is, usually, no more than the subject and predicate.
A list is a sequence of events, actions or objects.
The comma is used to keep meaning clear and to link clauses in a sentence (but cannot join two main clauses).
Norman Mailer was an American writer who covered one of the most dramatic sporting events of the Twentieth Century: the fight between Muhammed Ali and George Frazier. He wrote a book about the preparations and the bout itself called The Fight, from which this amended extract is taken. He also appeared in the Oscar-winning documentary about these events, When We Were Kings. This part of the novel shows Ali training with his sparring partner Bossman Jones.
Example:
For all of a round Bossmanbelaboured Ali, and Ali communed with himself. In the second of their two rounds, Ali stepped off the ropes for the last two minutes and proceeded for the first time in the afternoon to throw punches. A jab was thrown. Another jab connected. Then his master's assortment leaped forth; jabs with a closed glove, jabs with an open fist, jabs with a twist of the glove to the right, jabs with a turn to the left, then a series of right-hand leads offered like jabs, then uppercuts and easy hooks from a stand-up position, full of speed off both hands.
Question
How does the author's use of sentence structure effectively evoke the action in this part of the novel?
4 marks (A)
Answer
The writer uses short sentences 'A jab...Another jab...' that creates an image of a short, quick action (1) and a feeling of power and aggression (1). The use of a list gives the idea of Ali's range of moves (1) and the commas help convey the pauses and heavy breathing between each type of attack (1).
Method:
→ identify a feature of sentence structure (in bold)
→ if it is possible, try to quote to make clear what you are referring to
→ write about at least one effect for each technique identified with a bit of detail
→ as a general rule, 1 mark is given for 1 effect described with accuracy
Rhetorical Questions, Repetition and Fragment
The rhetorical question is a question whose answer is so obvious or absurd that it does not need to be answered.
Repetition is a technique that can be applied to words, clauses, sentences and punctuation.
A fragment is a word or words that start with a capital letter, end with the correct punctuation, but it is not, properly, a sentence.
In this amended example from John Milton's 17th century essay The Ready and Easy Way, he is arguing that people set-up a democracy, instead of being ruled by a King.
Example:
Can the stupidity be equalled to adore and be slaves of a single person? For doing that which he may want or not want to do, and we without him, might more effectively, more laudably do ourselves? Shall we never grow old enough to be wise? Shall we never make appropriate use of our learning and our experience, of examples? Is it such an unspeakable joy to serve? To scrape? Is it such happiness to wear a yoke? To clink our shackles, locked on by a law of slavery? To enjoy that which is more intolerable than even illegal injuries and violence?
Question
How does the writer's use of sentence structure impact upon the reader?
3 marks (A)
Answer
The writer's use of rhetorical questions makes the reader answer questions themselves in a way that equates monarchy to a form of oppression.(1)The use of repetition, 'Shall...', conveys to the reader the passion of the writer and involves them in the questioning process.(1)By utilising a fragment, 'To scrape?' the image of being degraded is emphasised as it is short, unusual and surrounded by a pause on either side.(1)
Method:
→ identify a feature of sentence structure (in bold)
→ if it is possible, try to quote to make clear what you are referring to
→ write about at least one effect for each technique identified with a bit of detail
→ as a general rule, 1 mark is given for 1 effect described with accuracy
Analysis 2: Word Choice and Language
A word denotes something. The word 'cup' can mean a...cup; something you drink tea from. The word has a denotation - it represents the physical object.
But words have connotations too. This means that a word has certain ideas, feeling or images associated with it.
If we were to write, 'He slunk into the classroom.' The word 'slunk' does more than denote entering the classroom. It has connotations too: it creates the idea or image that he came in quietly, slowly and trying to hide.
Writers use words with connotations to emphasise their meaning.
In the exam, a question will either explicitly ask you to use word choice in your answer or it may ask you to comment on the language of the writer. Word choice can be part of the answer to a question if framed this way.
This example is about a small town in the United States, 140 years ago, where gold is discovered. It means a 'gold rush' with lots of new arrivals to the town. It's not always a positive thing.
Example:
The small, homely town which previously had nothing to upset its peace except worries about the weather or a little local gossip was swamped with new arrivals. They leered out of windows from the newly built saloons. Their aggressive angry voices could be heard late at night as they argued over their different claims and who owned what. They obnoxiously stood on the sidewalks of the town, chewing tobacco and spitting at the feet of its upright citizens.
Question
How does the writer use word choice to convey an impression of the new arrivals to the town?
4 marks (A)
Answer
The writer uses word choice, 'swamped' which has connotations of dirt and smell and gives the impression the people arrived had these qualities. It also has connotations of a feeling of unpleasantness; it makes the reader think that being in the town has a continual feel of unpleasantness, anxiety, and slight disgust.(2)Again the use of word choice with 'obnoxiously' creates an image of people arrogantly standing in the way of others and it gives an idea of rudeness and lack of respect to the people who have already inhabited the town.(2)
Method
Follow this simple structure for analysis questions.
- Name the literary technique
- Quote it
- Write about the effects with a bit of detail, depth and creativity
This amended extract is taken from John Galt's novel Annals of the Parish. A story set over 200 years ago in the Ayrshire countryside.
Example:
The day was tempestuous, and the day blew with such a pith and birr, that I thought it would have twirled the trees in the kirk-yard out by the roots, and, blowing in this manner, it tirled the thack from the rigging of the Manse stable; and the same blast that did that, took down the lead that was on the kirk-roof, which hurled off with such a dreadful sound, as the like was neber heard.
Question
How does the writer use word choice to convey the power of the wind?
2 marks (A)
Answer
The writer uses the word 'blast' which creates connotations of an explosive force that is powerfully destructive in the same way dynamite might be.(1)The use of word choice, 'dreadful sound' conveys the idea of the noise created being terrifying because of the power required to make such a sound is intimidating.(1)
Method:
→ quote the word or phrase
→ explain the connotations in terms of ideas, images or feelings
→ make sure that as many examples are given as there are marks available
→ keep the question in mind - in this case linking to how the hills create a 'powerful impression'
This extract is taken Walter Scott's Rob Roy. The narrator is visiting his native country, Scotland.
Example:
The Cheviots rose before me in frowning majesty; not, indeed, with sublime variety of rock and cliff which characterizes mountains of the primary class, but huge, round-headed, and clothed with a dark robe of russet, gaining, by their extent and desolate appearance, an influence upon the imagination, as a desert district possessing a character of its own.
Question
Comment on how the writer uses word choice to create a powerful impression of the hills he approaches.
4 marks (A)
Answer
The writer's use of the word 'majesty' has connotations of powerful, dignified hills that stand above the surrounding countryside; (1) the use of 'round-headed' evokes connotations of hills that are smoothed at the top; (1) by using 'russet' the writer connotes images of a brown, earthen hills that are serious and wear the grassy hillside like a robe; (1) 'desolate' connotes hills where little seems to grow and there is nothing to catch the eye. (1)
Method:
→ quote the word or phrase
→ explain the connotations in terms of ideas, images or feelings
→ make sure that as many examples are given as there are marks available
→ keep the question in mind - in this case linking to how the hills create a 'powerful impression'
Analysis 3: Figures of Speech
Figures of speech is more than just simile, metaphor and personification, but not all that much more. Especially in the Higher Close Reading exam.
In this section we'll cover many types of figures of speech, but our main focus will be imagery. Now this is important, images are pictures in the reader's head; imagery is the use of simile, metaphor and/or personification.
Understandably, there can be some confusion on this issue. It becomes more confusing when we realise that figures of speech and imagery can also be called figurative language.
As with all Analysis questions, your answer will focus on the effects that are created by the figure of speech to emphasise the meaning of the writer. Marks are rewarded on the creativity, sensitivity and detail you bring to your description of these effects - sometimes called connotations.
A metaphor is a direct comparison between two things which are dissimilar, but share one or more features in common. By comparing one to another, the common features are emphasised.
When examining how a metaphor works, it is a good idea to start by asking, 'What are the features both share?'
The following extract is taken from Philip Chandler's The Long Goodbye. Think about the shared characteristics between the drunk man's legs and rubber.
Example:
I got the drunk up then, somehow. He was eager to help but his legs were rubber and he kept falling asleep in the middle of an apologetic sentence. I got the door unlocked and dragged him inside and spread him on the couch, threw a rug over him and let him go back to sleep. He was a rubber log for an hour.
Question
How does the narrator's use of imagery emphasise the condition of the man he is trying to help?
2 marks (A)
Answer
The writer's use of metaphor, 'his legs were rubber', creates an image of a man unstable and unsteady on his feet; his legs collapsing beneath him.(1)Again, the use of the metaphor 'a rubber log' creates an idea that the man is easily bent and shaped like rubber itself.(1)
Method:
→ identify a the specific techjnique
→ if it is possible, try to quote to make clear what you are referring to
→ write about at least one effect for each technique identified with a bit of detail
→ as a general rule, 1 mark is given for 1 effect described with accuracy
A simile is a comparison between two things where the words 'like' or 'as' are used. Again, the same as a metaphor, two dissimilar things with features in common are compared for emphasis.
Again, to begin analysing a simile it is a good idea to understand the shared features. Here's an example from English Journey by J.B.Priestly.
Example:
The motor bus that took me from Leicester to Nottingham was not one of those superb coaches that I have already handsomely praised in this book. It was a most uncomfortable vehicle. It shook and rattled. When it reached a fair speed it struck terror into my heart, like a French express. At more than forty miles an hour, we seemed to be on the edge of catastrophe. Even when it was going slowly, you could not read print inside it, your eyes being shaken like dice in a box.
Question
How does the writers imagery convey the discomfort of the journey?
1 mark (A)
Answer
The writer uses a simile, 'eyes being shaken like a dice in a box', which creates an idea of the unsteadiness, erraticness and the vibrations inflicted on the passengers of the journey and highlights the lack of comfort of the journey. (1)
Method
Follow this simple structure for analysis questions.
- Name the literary technique
- Quote it
- Write about the effects with a bit of detail, depth and creativity
Personification is a type of metaphor that draws a comparison between inanimate objects or abstract ideas and human (living) beings. It makes the object seem like a person.
This amended excerpt is taken from James Hogg's short story, The Cameronian Preacher's Tale. The abstract idea of death is turned into a living being.
Example:
Sit near me, my children, and come nigh, all ye who are not of my kindred, though of my flock; for my days and hours are numbered; death is with me dealing, and will soon call me to account for my life and its sins, and I have a sad and a wonderful story to relate.
Alliteration is often misunderstood. It is the repetition of consonant sounds. It is not words that start with the same letter close together.
The repetition of the consonant sounds create an effect that emphasises meaning.
Example:
Grass sprouted forth and purple flower heads with small butterfly petals protruded from the green, drooping leaves. Red flowers burst forth from slender green stalks that rose above the grass tips and the warm murmur an innumerable swarm of bees who settled and jostled at the flower heads drifted through the air.
Onomatopoeiaare words that sound like the thing they describe. For example: hiss, pop, crack, bang are all words that sound like the noise they describe.